Evolution of the spatial environment of cities. Ancient cities. The most beautiful cities in the world, built according to plan
The Old Russian city is a fortified settlement, which at the same time was the military, economic, political, social and cultural center of the entire surrounding territory. Merchants, artisans, monks, painters, etc. settled in the cities.
Foundation of ancient Russian cities
The history of Russian cities began with the appearance in a certain place of people who built housing and settled in it for a long time. In the vicinity of ancient cities that have survived to this day (Moscow, Kyiv, Novgorod, Vladimir, etc.), traces of early eras have been found, starting from the Paleolithic. At the time of the Trypillian culture, settlements of several tens and hundreds of houses and dwellings already existed on the territory of the future Russia.
The settlements of Ancient Russia, as a rule, were located on elevated places near natural water sources (rivers, springs). They consisted of houses protected from enemy attacks by a log palisade. The forerunners of Russian cities in the Middle Ages are considered to be fortified sanctuaries and shelters (detinets and kremlin), erected by the inhabitants of several settlements in the district.
The early medieval cities were founded not only by the Slavs, but also by other tribes: Rostov the Great founded the Finno-Ugric tribe, Murom - the Murom tribe, Suzdal, Vladimir were founded by the Meryans together with the Slavs. In addition to the Slavs, the composition of Kievan Rus included the peoples of the Baltics and the Finno-Ugric peoples, who merged into a single people with the help of political unification.
In the 9th-10th centuries, along with cities of refuge, small fortresses began to appear, and then settlements, in which artisans and merchants settled. The exact dates of the founding of early Russian cities are usually established only by the first mentions in the annals of those times. Some dates of the founding of cities were established as a result of archaeological excavations of those places where there were ancient Russian cities. So, Novgorod and Smolensk are mentioned in the annals of the 9th century, but cultural layers earlier than the 10th century have not yet been discovered.
The largest cities that began to develop rapidly in the 9th-10th centuries. on the main waterways, these are the cities of Polotsk, Kyiv, Novgorod, Smolensk, Izborsk, and others. Their development was directly related to trade carried out at the intersections of roads and waterways.
Ancient fortresses and defensive structures
There were "senior" cities and suburbs (subordinates), which originated from settlements from the main cities, and their settlement proceeded according to orders from the capital. Any ancient Russian fortified city consisted of a fortified part and nearby unfortified settlements, around which there were lands used for haymaking, fishing, grazing livestock, and forest areas.
The main protective role was given to earth ramparts and wooden walls, under which there were ditches. For the construction of defensive fortifications, a suitable terrain was used. So, most of the fortresses of Ancient Russia were located in protected areas: hilltops, islands or cape mountains.
An example of such a city-fortress is the city of Vyshgorod, located not far from Kyiv. From the very foundation, it was built as a fortress, surrounded by powerful earthen and wooden fortifications with ramparts and a moat. The city was subdivided into the princely part (detinets), the kremlin and the settlement, where the quarters of artisans were located.
The rampart was a complex structure, consisting of huge wooden log cabins (often made of oak) standing right next to each other, the space between which was filled with stones and earth. The size of such log cabins, for example, in Kyiv was 6.7 m, in the transverse part more than 19 m. The height of the earthen rampart could reach 12 m, and the ditch dug in front of it often had the shape of a triangle. At the top was a parapet with a battle platform, where the defenders of the fortress were located, who shot at the enemies and threw stones. Wooden towers were built at the turning points.
The entrance to the ancient fortress was always the only one through a special bridge laid over the moat. The bridge was placed on supports, which were destroyed during the attacks. Later, drawbridges were built.
The interior of the fortress
Old Russian cities of the 10th-13th centuries. already had a complex internal structure, which evolved as the territory increased and united various fortified parts along with the settlements. The layout of cities was different: radial, radial-circular or linear (along a river or road).
Major social and economic centers ancient city:
- Church residence and Veche square.
- Prince's Court.
- Port and marketplace next to it.
The center of the city is a citadel or kremlin with fortified walls, ramparts and a moat. Gradually, socio-political administration is grouped in this place, princely courts, a city cathedral, dwellings of servants and squads, as well as artisans are located. The street layout consisted of highways that ran along or perpendicular to the river bank.
Roads and utilities
Each ancient Russian city had its own plan, according to which roads and communications were laid. The engineering device for that time was at a fairly high level.
Wooden pavements were built, consisting of longitudinal logs (10-12 m long) and wooden logs laid on top, split in half with the flat side up. Pavements had a width of 3.5-4 m, and in the 13-14 centuries. already 4-5 m and usually functioned for 15-30 years.
Drainage systems of ancient Russian cities were of 2 types:
- "sewer", which diverted groundwater from under the buildings, consisting of barrels to collect water and wooden pipes through which water flowed into the sump;
- a water collector - a square wooden frame, from which dirty water then flowed down a thick pipe towards the river.
The structure of the city estate
The estate in the city consisted of several residential buildings and outbuildings. The area of such yards was from 300 to 800 sq. m. Each estate was fenced with a wooden fence from neighbors and the street, which were made in the form of a palisade of spruce logs sticking up with a tip up to a height of 2.5 m. Inside it, residential buildings stood on one side, and household buildings (a cellar, a medusha, a cage, a cowshed, a granary, a barn, a bathhouse, etc.). Hut called any heated building with a stove.
The ancient dwellings that made up the ancient Russian city began their existence as semi-dugouts (10-11 centuries), then ground buildings with several rooms (12 century). Houses were built in 1-3 floors. Semi-dugouts had a pillared wall structure up to 5 m long each and up to 0.8 m deep, a round clay or stone oven was placed near the entrance. The floors were made of clay or boards, the door was always located on the south wall. The roof was gable made of wood, which was smeared with clay on top.
Old Russian architecture and religious buildings
Cities in Ancient Russia were the place where monumental buildings were built, which were mainly associated with the Christian religion. The traditions and rules for the construction of ancient temples came to Russia from Byzantium, therefore they were built according to the cross-domed scheme. Temples were erected by order of rich princes and the Orthodox Church itself.
The first monumental buildings were tithe churches, the oldest of which has survived to this day is the Church of the Savior in Chernigov (1036). Starting from the 11th century, they began to build more complex temples with galleries, stair towers, with several domes. The ancient architects tried to make the interior expressive and colorful. An example of such a temple is the St. Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv, similar cathedrals were erected in Novgorod and Polotsk.
Slightly different, but bright and original, an architectural school has developed in the North-East of Russia, which is characterized by many decorative carved elements, slender proportions and plasticity of facades. One of the masterpieces of that time is the Church of the Intercession on the Nerl (1165).
The population of ancient Russian cities
The bulk of the city's population is artisans, fishermen, day laborers, merchants, the prince and his squad, the administration and the master's "servants", an important role in connection with the baptism of Russia began to play the clergy (monks and churchmen). Highly large group The population consisted of all kinds of handicraft people who settled according to their specialties: blacksmiths, gunsmiths, jewelers, carpenters, weavers and tailors, tanners, potters, masons, etc.
In every city there was always a market through which the sale and purchase of all manufactured and imported goods and products was carried out.
The largest ancient Russian city was Kyiv in the 12th-13th centuries. numbered 30-40 thousand people, Novgorod - 20-30 thousand. Smaller cities: Chernigov, Vladimir, Polotsk, Smolensk, Rostov, Vitebsk, Ryazan and others had a population of several thousand people. The number of people living in smaller towns rarely exceeded 1 thousand people.
Most large lands Ancient Russia: Volyn, Galician, Kyiv, Novgorod, Polotsk, Rostov-Suzdal, Ryazan, Smolensk, Turovo-Pinsk, Chernigov.
History of the Novgorod land
In terms of the territory that Novgorod land covered (the north and east of the living Finno-Ugric tribes), it was considered the most extensive Russian possession, including the suburbs of Pskov, Staraya Russa, Velikie Luki, Ladoga and Torzhok. Already by the end of the 12th century. this included Perm, Pechora, Yugra (Northern Urals). All cities had a clear hierarchy, dominated by Novgorod, which owned the most important trade routes: merchant caravans coming from the Dnieper, passing to Sweden and Denmark, as well as leading to the northeastern princely destinies through the Volga and to Bulgaria.
The wealth of Novgorod merchants was multiplied by trade in inexhaustible forest resources, but agriculture on this land was lean, because grain was brought to Novgorod from neighboring principalities. The population of the Novgorod land was engaged in cattle breeding, growing cereals, horticultural and horticultural crops. Crafts were very developed: fur, walrus, etc.
Political life of Novgorod
According to archaeological excavations by the 13th century. Novgorod was a large fortified and well-organized city inhabited by artisans and merchants. His political life was controlled by local boyars. On these lands in Ancient Russia, very large boyar landownerships were formed, which consisted of 30-40 clans that monopolized many government posts.
The free population, which included Novgorod land, was the boyars, the living and the people (small landowners), merchants, merchants and artisans. And the dependents included serfs and smerds. A characteristic feature of the life of Novgorod is the calling of the prince with the help of drawing up a contract for reigning, and he was chosen only to make court decisions and military leadership in the event of an attack. All the princes were visitors from Tver, Moscow and other cities, and each tried to tear away some volosts from the Novgorod land, because of which they were immediately replaced. For 200 years, 58 princes have changed in the city.
Political rule in these lands was carried out by the Novgorod Veche, which, in fact, represented a federation of self-governing communities and corporations. The political history of Novgorod has developed successfully precisely due to the participation in all processes of all groups of the population, from the boyars to the "black people". However, in 1418 the dissatisfaction of the lower classes ended in their uprising, during which the inhabitants rushed to destroy the rich houses of the boyars. Bloodshed was avoided only through the intervention of the clergy, who resolved the dispute through the courts.
The heyday of the Novgorod Republic, which existed for more than one century, raised a large and beautiful city to the level of medieval European settlements, architecture and military force whom contemporaries admired. As a western outpost, Novgorod successfully repelled all the attacks of the German knights, preserving the national identity of the Russian land.
History of the land of Polotsk
Polotsk land covered in 10-12 centuries. the territory from the Western Dvina River to the sources of the Dnieper, creating a river route between the Baltic and the Black Sea. The largest cities of this land in the early Middle Ages: Vitebsk, Borisov, Lukoml, Minsk, Izyaslavl, Orsha, etc.
The inheritance of Polotsk was created by the Izyaslavich dynasty at the beginning of the 11th century, which secured it by renouncing claims to Kyiv. The very appearance of the phrase "Polotsk land" already marked in the 12th century. separation of this territory from Kyiv.
At that time, the Vseslavich dynasty ruled the land, but there were also redistribution of tables, which, in the end, led to the collapse of the principality. The next Vasilkovich dynasty already ruled Vitebsk, pushing the Polotsk princes.
In those days, the Lithuanian tribes also obeyed Polotsk, and the neighbors often threatened to attack the city itself. The history of this land is very confused and little confirmed by sources. The princes of Polotsk often fought with Lithuania, and sometimes acted as its ally (for example, during the capture of the city of Velikiye Luki, which at that time belonged to the Novgorod land).
Polotsk troops made frequent raids on many Russian lands, and in 1206 they stormed Riga, but unsuccessfully. By the beginning of the 13th century. in this region, the influence of the Livonian swordsmen and the Smolensk principality increases, then there is a massive invasion of the Lithuanians, who by 1240 subjugate the Polotsk lands. Then, after the war with Smolensk, the city of Polotsk passes into the possession of Prince Tovtivill, by the end of whose principality (1252) the ancient Russian period in the history of Polotsk ends.
Old Russian cities and their role in history
Old Russian medieval cities were founded as human settlements, standing at the crossroads of trade routes and rivers. Their other goal was to protect the inhabitants from the raids of neighbors and enemy tribes. With the development and enlargement of cities, there was an increase in property inequality, the creation of tribal principalities, the expansion of trade and economic ties between cities and their inhabitants, which further influenced the creation and historical development of a single state - Kievan Rus.
The chapter "Urban planning" of the subsection "Architecture of the Roman Republic" of the section "Architecture of Ancient Rome" from the book " General history architecture. Volume II. Architecture of the Ancient World (Greece and Rome)”, edited by B.P. Mikhailov.
For a number of centuries after the emergence of the Roman state, its cities did not know a regular layout. They formed spontaneously, following the natural terrain. In this era, for residents of cities, the main concern was the construction of protective fortifications and the implementation of the most necessary improvement measures (water supply and sewerage), and the issue of the rational organization of the urban territory faded into the background. Therefore, urban planning for a long time were reduced to the construction of city walls, which covered the gradually expanding area of the city, to the construction of aqueducts and the creation of sewers. On the largest scale, this happened in the capital of the state - Rome (Fig. 7).
In ancient times (VIII-VII centuries BC) Rome was a small settlement that arose on the Palatine Hill and surrounded by a rampart and a moat (the so-called Square Rome). The dwellings were huts, usually elliptical in plan, about 4.8X3.65 m in size, which consisted of a wooden frame and reed walls plastered with clay. By the end of the 7th century BC. the overgrown settlement turned into a city of about 285 hectares, divided into four districts. The fortress was moved from the Palatine to the steep rocky Capitol, which became the acropolis of the city. By the VI century. BC. rises the oldest stone wall of Rome, built of tuff and having a perimeter of about 7 km. It is partially preserved on the Palatine, Capitol, Quirinal and Esquiline. In the V-III centuries. Rome was a city with a gradually formed irregular layout of narrow, crooked streets, only by 296 BC. paved with cobblestones. The basis of the building was houses made of wood and raw materials. Although the legislation of the 5th c. BC. provided for mandatory intervals between houses, the city periodically suffered from fires. The constant floods of the Tiber also brought great damage. Improvement was limited to sewerage, which, according to legend, already existed in the tsarist period, probably in the form of sewers, by the 3rd century BC. BC e. covered with vaults. At the foot of the Capitol, a round stone water cistern - Tullianum, which previously had a beehive-shaped dome, has been preserved.
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The capture and ruin of Rome by the Gauls at the beginning of the 4th century. BC. with all its sharpness showed the need to build powerful defensive fortifications. In 378-352 years. the so-called Servian wall was erected, for a long time erroneously attributed to the era of King Servius Tullius (Fig. 8). The wall with a perimeter of 11 km covered an area of 426 hectares. Its remnants survived on the Capitol, Quirinal, Viminal, Esquiline and Aventina. The builders of the Servian Wall combined Italian and Greek fortification techniques: the Italian earthen rampart and stone belt walls of Greek cities. The shaft, brought here to 30-40 m thick, was located between the high front and lower rear walls. The height and volume of the shaft decreased in some areas, corresponding to the elevation of the terrain, and came to naught at the steepest points. So, at the Capitol, the wall was interrupted, since the mighty substructures of the site of the temple of Jupiter, together with its podium above them, completed the steep rocky slope, making it inaccessible. A deep ditch in front of the wall increased its impregnability. The wall was made in “normal” dry masonry from alternating rows of tuff blocks and tuff blocks. The size of the blocks, different in different places, ranges on average from 30 X 30 X 60 to 60 X 60 X 120 cm.
The existing wedge-shaped arches above the platform for installing catapults (on the Aventina and Quirinal) were built much later (II-I centuries BC).
The section of the wall on the Aventina, built last (in 217-87 BC) and most carefully, gives an idea of the former grandeur of the whole. The monumental Servian Wall was one of the greatest achievements of the fortification of the ancient world.
In the 5th century BC. in southern Italy in Magna Graecia and in the north in Etruria, cities with a regular layout already existed. The Hippodamian system spread widely in the Greek cities of Italy - from the Athenian colony of Thurii planned by Hippodamus himself to Poseidonia and Naples. The rectangular layout of some Etruscan cities may also have been borrowed from the Greeks. But neither among the Greeks, nor, as studies of recent years have shown, among the Etruscans, the uniform division of urban areas into quarters was yet accompanied by a clear allocation of two main mutually perpendicular highways. This allocation first appeared among the Romans as a result of the formation of their military camp. The conquering people attached great importance to the proper organization of the camp, so the most expedient plan was gradually developed, which became standard and was used by the Roman legionnaires throughout the history of Rome. In the layout of the camp, the Romans' inherent inclination towards strict rationality and regularity, which affected the clear organization of their state and military way of life, found expression, classical in its laconicism. The device of a typical Roman camp is described in detail by the ancient historian Polybius (II century BC).
By the end of the day's march, the Roman legionnaires were breaking a large rectangle on flat ground, oriented to the cardinal points. A deep ditch was dug along its contours and an earthen rampart was poured. In the center of each of the walls thus formed, a gate was arranged. The geographical orientation of the camp was emphasized by the two main roads crossing it - the cardo, directed from north to south, and the decumanus, which went from east to west. At their intersection there was a square for a general meeting of soldiers, which served as the administrative and religious center of the camp. Here the tents of military leaders and priests were set up, a camp altar was set up and a room for the treasury was built.
The tents of individual military formations were located in compliance with strictly established intervals. In addition to the cardo and decumanus, the camp was crossed by a series of mutually perpendicular narrower streets. Thus the Roman camp acquired rational system plan, composed of rectangular cells of different sizes (Fig. 9).
In the most important strongholds of the conquered territories, instead of temporary ones, permanent camps were built, which were strongholds of Roman domination. They were fortified with stone walls and had barracks instead of tents and stone buildings for the military-administrative apparatus and public institutions. Over time, these camps, connected by excellent roads with the metropolis, also became centers of attraction for trade and crafts, overgrown with residential buildings on the outside (houses of families of warriors, dwellings of artisans and merchants) and turned into the core of newly emerged cities. Many cities in Europe and the Mediterranean have their origins in Roman camps. The military camp of the Romans made a significant contribution to ancient urban planning.
The first known city of the new type is a Roman fortress in Ostia, built in 340-335. BC. It arose at the mouth of the Tiber, at the sea gates of Rome, to protect this important strategic position (Fig. 10). Initially, the fortress on the left bank of the Tiber was relatively small (194 X 125.7 m). It had a rectangular grid of quarters - a decumanus 7.35 m wide and a cardo 6.9 m wide; at the place of their intersection was the city square - the forum. The city retained this character until the end of the Punic Wars. After the destruction of Carthage and thanks to the rapid growth maritime trade Rome began the economic rise of Ostia. The city walls ceased to serve as the boundary of development, and rapid construction began outside them, and the walls themselves gradually collapsed. Construction was carried out haphazardly, due to which the city, growing in size, at the same time lost the strict geometricity of its plan. The rectangular grid of quarters has been preserved only in the central part of the city. The direction of the main city highways also changed significantly, which, going beyond the boundaries of the old fortress, followed the direction of the roads that approached the city gates. Thus, the decumanus, which strictly followed the previous direction in the northeast, turned sharply to the south in its southwestern part. At the point of turning from it to the northwest, a street branched off (modern Via della Foce). Thus, it practically turned out that the main city highway west - east on the border of the old city forked and, going at sharp angles to the old direction, led one - to the sea, the other - to the river. The direction of the cardo also abruptly changed, which turned sharply from the old city gates in the direction to the southeast. A similar irregularity was repeated in the rest of the streets, thanks to which the city blocks took on the most diverse forms. These streets were in most cases rather narrow, the predominant building type being one-story, rarely two-story buildings. The houses of the ruling stratum of the population were grouped around the forum. Temples were few and modest. In the 1st century BC. a new city wall was erected, which stabilized the size of the city square. The city received the shape of a trapezoid in terms of its base facing the river.
The limitation of the size of the city square, together with the growth of the economic importance of Ostia as the main seaport of Rome, led to a significant change in the appearance of the city in imperial times.
In addition to Ostia, during the period of the republic, a number of cities with a regular layout arose - Minturno (beginning III in. BC.), Pirgi(mid-III century BC), etc. In some cities there were several cardos and decumanuses (for example, in Herculaneum, Fig. 11).
Pompeii occupies a special place in the urban planning of the republic, since the city, covered with volcanic ash on August 24, 79 AD, has been perfectly preserved and gives an exceptionally complete picture not only of the planning and architecture, but also of many aspects of the life and life of its inhabitants.
Pompeii was founded in the 6th century. BC. Greeks. For several centuries of its history, the city repeatedly passed from hand to hand, until at the end of the 1st century. BC. did not become a Roman city that received the rights of a colony, where a fairly significant number of Roman settlers were settled. The long history of the city has left its mark on its architectural appearance, which is characterized by a mixture of Greek and Roman features. The oldest part of the city (southwestern), adjoining the forum, has retained its original layout with its narrow, crooked streets and irregularly shaped quarters (Fig. 12). Other areas are more orderly, although the city as a whole lacks strict regularity. So, if the new area to the southwest of the Vezuvan Gate consists of a grid of rectangular blocks, then the regularity of the blocks east of Stabianskaya Street is very peculiar - they have a diamond shape.
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| 12. Pompeii. Panorama of the city, streets in the ancient part, city plan: a - forum; b - Triangular forum; c - Bolshoi and Maly theatres; d - Stabian terms; d - amphitheater; e - the house of the Vettii; w - Faun's house | |
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In Pompeii, the city layout is based on two decumanuses (Stabian and Mercury streets) and two cardos (Plenty and Nolan streets). The outlines of the plan are incorrect, they correspond to the surface of the lava plateau, which occupies the area between the slopes of Vesuvius and the sea. A huge picturesque peak of Vesuvius reigned over the city and the Gulf of Naples. Two major city highways are directed to it - Stabianskaya and Mercury streets. The elongated area of the forum, the longitudinal axis of the amphitheater, and the temple of Apollo are oriented towards Vesuvius. Thanks to this, the picturesque green cone of the mountain, clearly looming against the bright blue sky, is present in every urban perspective, making it easier to navigate.
Roman colonists introduced new features into the character of Pompeii. They manifested themselves most clearly in the area of the forum, for the city, which had a Roman municipal structure, should have had a public center corresponding to it. The Pompeii forum was located, unlike the new cities, not in the center of urban development, but in the southwestern sector of the city.
The principles of regular planning of the military camp and the center of the Italian city developed during the period of the republic formed the basis of the urban planning of the empire.
Pre-Mongol, and, accordingly, pre-Moscow, Russia is a country of great Russian cities: Kyiv, Novgorod, Smolensk, Chernigov, Ryazan, Rostov, Suzdal, Vladimir ... Many volumes of scientific and popular science books have been written about their history, films are being made, new exhibitions are opening and museum exhibits. And what cities were located at that time, more than 770 years ago, in the current cultural and geographical heart of Russia: on the territory of modern Moscow and the Moscow region? What has survived from these cities to the present day?
Scheme of the ancient cities of the Moscow region of the pre-Mongolian era
In the era of pre-Mongolian Rus, on the territory of the modern Moscow region, there were at least seventeen Russian cities: Volokolamsk, Dmitrov, Dubna, Zaraisk (Sturgeon), Zvenigorod, Kolomna, Koltesk, Lobynsk, Mozhaisk, Moscow, Perevitsk, Przemysl Moskovsky, Rostislavl Ryazansky, Svirelsk, Teshilov, Tushkov and Khotun.
The information we have about these cities is unequal. About one of them - the mysterious city of Svirelsk - we know almost nothing, except for its name, even its exact location is not known. Other cities have been studying archaeological expeditions of the Institute of Archeology of the Russian Academy of Sciences, other scientific institutions and museums for many years. We can present the most ancient stages of the history of these cities in relatively detail - although in the past of each of them there are still many secrets and mysteries.
Some ancient Russian cities of the Moscow region gradually developed into noticeable urban centers: Volokolamsk, an ancient Novgorod city on the trade route from the Nizovsky lands to Novgorod; Mozhaisk, which arose as an eastern outpost of the Smolensk principality; Kolomna founded by the Ryazans. Moscow from small town became a metropolis and the capital of a vast country. Other ancient cities of the Moscow region perished: for example, Koltesk - during the Mongol-Tatar invasion; or Rostislavl - later, during the active wars of Moscow with the Crimean Khanate.
Old Russian Dubna.
Pectoral cross and crosses vests metal stone amber
In their place now there is no locality, only archaeological sites- the remains of ancient fortifications and a layer of earth saturated with traces of ancient life, called in archeology the "cultural layer". Other cities have been preserved as small villages and villages - for example, Teshilov and Tushkov. And the ancient Russian Dubna, which after the invasion became the village of Gorodishche on the Dubensky mouth, is now part of modern city Dubna, founded in the middle of the twentieth century, is its historical predecessor.
On the territory of the modern Moscow region in the era before the Tatar-Mongol invasion, the lands of five ancient Russian principalities were connected. The central, northern and northeastern regions of the current region were part of the territory of the Rostov-Suzdal (later - Vladimir-Suzdal) principality, the predecessor of Muscovite Russia. It included the basin of the Klyazma River, the middle course of the Moscow River, the basin of the Dubna River and its tributaries, and the right bank of the Upper Volga.
Almost all the cities in this territory were founded or fortified by the Rostov-Suzdal prince Yuri Dolgoruky. Among them are Dubna, Dmitrov, Moscow, probably Zvenigorod and Przemysl of Moscow. By the XIII century, the lands of this principality expanded, they included areas along the lower reaches of the Moscow River up to its mouth (Kolomna). In the southeast of the modern Moscow region, in the middle reaches of the Oka River, the lands of the Ryazan principality were located.
Old Russian Dubna. Cross encolpion
The Ryazan cities included Rostislavl, Perevitsk, Zaraysk (Sturgeon), at first Ryazan was Kolomna. In the south-west of the Moscow region, along the banks of the Oka and its tributaries, the cities of Teshilov, Koltesk, Lobynsk (later ceded to the Ryazan principality) were built as part of the Chernigov principality. Western part regions - the upper reaches of the Moscow River - originally belonged to the Smolensk principality.
Here was the Smolensk outpost city of Mozhaisk. In the northwestern part of the current Moscow region, the Rostov-Suzdal principality bordered on the Novgorod land. Here on the trade route to Novgorod was the ancient Novgorod city of Volokolamsk (Volok Lamsky). All ancient Russian cities of the Moscow region are located on the banks of rivers. The place of the ancient city in the hydrographic system of the Volga-Oka interfluve was one of the key factors that had a decisive influence on its history.
Most of the ancient cities of the Moscow region are mentioned in chronicles starting from the middle of the 12th century. The earliest chronicle mention, most likely, refers to the ancient Russian Dubna (1134, the Novgorod First Chronicle). The second, under 1135, Volokolamsk is mentioned. List of dates of the first annalistic mentions of ancient Russian cities in the Moscow region (only cities first mentioned in pre-Mongolian times are indicated):
1134 - Dubna
1135 - Volokolamsk
1146 or 1147 - Koltesk, Lobynsk
1147 - Moscow, Teshilov
1152 - Moscow Przemysl (according to V.N. Tatishchev)
1153 - Rostislavl
1154 - Dmitrov
1177 - Kolomna
1225 - Zaraysk (Sturgeon), possibly under the name Sturgeon - 1146.
1231 - Mozhaisk
1 Volokolamsk
Volokolamsk - Drag on Lama (Drag Lamsky). The ancient Novgorod city was located in a bend of the left bank of the Gorodnya River, at its confluence with the Lama River (a tributary of the Shoshi River in the Volga basin), on a trade route connecting Novgorod lands with the Volga-Oka basin. It was first mentioned in chronicles under 1135. The cultural layer of the pre-Mongol period was found on the territory of the Volokolamsk settlement and the surrounding settlements. Defensive structures of the 12th century were found in the lower layers of the rampart surrounding the settlement, up to 6 meters high.
2 Dmitrov
Dmitrov, according to the chronicle, was founded in 1154 by Yuri Dolgoruky. Archaeological evidence confirms the existence of the city from the middle of the 12th century. The Dmitrovsky Kremlin - the fortified part of the ancient city - is located on the right bank of the Yakhroma River (a tributary of the Sestra River in the Volga basin). It is surrounded by a shaft up to 7 meters high. Numerous cultural remains of the pre-Mongol period were found in the Kremlin and around it, on the territory of the settlements.
Most experts consider the connection between the name of the city and the name of the Great Martyr Dmitry of Thessalonica undoubted, which allows us to reasonably assume the appearance of the Dmitrievskaya Church here simultaneously with the creation of the city or in the first years of its existence. Perhaps it was in this church that the famous icon of Dmitry Solunsky, originating from Dmitrov, was originally located, painted in the late 12th - early 13th centuries.
3 Dubna
Old Russian Dubna was located on the right bank of the Volga, at the confluence of the Dubna River. Founded by Yuri Dolgoruky on the site of a previously existing Russian settlement. For the first time it is mentioned in the annals under 1134, thus, it has the earliest mention of all the ancient Russian cities of the Moscow region. A small fragment of the surviving fortifications and individual sections of residential buildings were investigated. In the immediate vicinity, on the right and left banks of the Volga, the left and right banks of the Dubna River, there are five settlements, which are the remains of the settlements of the ancient Russian city.
One of them, the Pekunovskoye settlement, apparently has an earlier origin and contains numerous materials related to the functioning of the Volga trade route in the 10th-11th centuries. Probably, this settlement was the historical predecessor of the ancient Russian Dubna. In its vicinity there are two large burial mounds of the 11th-12th centuries, in which the inhabitants of the Pekunov settlement and the city of Dubna are probably buried. Somewhat later, the Christian cemetery of Old Russian Dubna was located on the right bank of the Volga, on the slope of a sandy mound near the southern outskirts of the urban settlement.
Old Russian Dubna was a regional administrative, commercial, military and spiritual center of the 12th - the first third of the 13th centuries. Being at the first stage of its history a border fortress of the large Rostov-Suzdal principality, later it became part of the Pereyaslav principality with its capital in Pereyaslavl-Zalessky. Judging by the materials of archaeological research, customs examination of goods carried along the Volga and Dubna rivers was carried out in the city; the local administration and the garrison were located here, numerous artisans worked, there was an Orthodox church.
The city burned down at least twice in internecine wars - in 1149 and 1216, after which it was rebuilt. He died during the Mongol-Tatar invasion, in January-February 1238. Later, on the site of the city, there was the village of Gorodishche (it is also the village of Dubna) - the current Ratmino Street of the city of Dubna, Moscow Region, in the XV-XVI centuries. the medieval customs point "Dubenskoye Myto" also operated here.
4 Zaraysk (Sturgeon)
The city of Zaraysk (aka Zarazsk, in pre-Mongolian times, it may have been called Sturgeon) is located on the cape of the right bank of the Sturgeon River (a tributary of the Oka River). It was first mentioned in chronicles under 1225. A legend is connected with Zaraisk about the voluntary death of Princess Evpraksia, whose husband, Prince Fyodor Yuryevich, was killed in the camp of Batu. According to legend, Yevpaty Kolovrat gathered his militia near Zaraisk. The cultural layer of the pre-Mongolian Zaraysk was found on the territory of the later Zaraisk Kremlin and its environs.
5 Zvenigorod
Old Russian Zvenigorod was located on the cape of the left bank of the Moskva River, on the western outskirts of the left-bank part of the modern city. Zvenigorod arose in the middle of the XII century, by the time of the Mongol-Tatar invasion it was already a relatively large urban center. It was first mentioned in the spiritual charter of the Moscow Prince Ivan Kalita around 1339. The remains of the fortified part of the pre-Mongolian Zvenigorod are a large settlement with preserved sections of the rampart of the 12th century; around it are plantations. In the cultural layer of the ancient Russian Zvenigorod, two birch bark letters were found. Both of them date from the first half of the 12th century.
One is a short excerpt from some letter with the words: “but I don’t need it,” the second is a fully preserved text of a letter from Govenova’s widow to Nezhenets demanding to pay what Nezhenets owed to the late Govin, and the threat of prosecution: “From Govenova [widows] to the Gentile. Give sixty kun rooks (i.e. per rook or per rook). [So] said Gauvin before his death (lit.: going to court), and the priest wrote down. Give [them] to Luca. If you don’t give it, then I will take a boy from the prince and I will come [with him] - this will become a large sum for you.
6 Kolomna
Kolomna is located at the confluence of the Kolomenka River with the Moscow River. It was first mentioned in chronicles under 1177 as a border town of the Ryazan Principality. The cultural layer of the pre-Mongol period was found on the territory of the late kremlin and its environs. In 1237, in the Kolomna region, a major battle took place between Russian detachments and the troops of Batu, which ended in the victory of the Tatar-Mongols, the capture and destruction of the city.
7 Koltesk
The city of Koltesk was located on the left bank of the Mutenka River, the right tributary of the Oka River. It was first mentioned in the annals under 1146 or 1147 in connection with the campaign of Svyatoslav "I came from Svyatoslav to the Koltesk town." Koltovo Settlement, which is the remains of a citadel of an ancient Russian city, was almost completely destroyed during the construction of the road, the surviving sections of the cultural layer contain materials from the pre-Mongolian period. Around the settlement there are several villages - the remains of urban settlements. The city was destroyed during the Tatar-Mongol invasion.
8 Lobynsk
The city of Lobynsk (Lobynsk) was located on the cape of the left bank of the Oka River, at the mouth of its tributary, the Protva River. Currently, this place is the village of Drakino. The site of the monument was inhabited as early as the 8th-10th centuries; the original settlement on this site belongs to the early Vyatichi. The urban cultural layer has been recorded since the 12th century. It was first mentioned in chronicles under 1146 or 1147. In the XII century. belonged to the Chernigov principality, in the XIII century. - Ryazan. The city died during the Tatar-Mongol invasion, perhaps after that it was revived for some time.
9 Mozhaisk
Mozhaisk is located on the right bank of the Moskva River, at the mouth of the Mozhaika River. Founded in the 12th century, first mentioned in chronicles under 1231. The fortified part of the ancient Russian city, the Mozhaisk Kremlin, has been preserved, surrounded by a rampart up to 3 m high. In the course of archaeological research, numerous materials of the pre-Mongol period were found on its territory.
10 Moscow
Ancient Russian Moscow was located on the left bank of the river of the same name, on a cape at the confluence of the Neglinnaya River. Now this place is located in the southwestern part of the Moscow Kremlin. A Russian settlement on the site of present-day Moscow arises no later than the 11th century. The city was first mentioned in chronicles under 1147. Archaeological research revealed the remains of a cape settlement of the late 11th century, located at the confluence of the Neglinnaya River with the Moscow River, materials of a trade and craft settlement of the 11th-12th centuries that existed in the vicinity of the fortress.
Painting by Appolinary Vasnetsov "Foundation of Moscow"
In the central part of the fortress there was a wooden church in the name of the holy prophet John the Baptist. In 1156, Andrei Bogolyubsky erected a new wooden fortress in Moscow at the direction of Yuri Dolgoruky. In 1177 it was burnt down by Prince Gleb Rostislavich of Ryazan, but then it was quickly restored. At the beginning of the 13th century, Moscow became the center of a specific principality. In 1238, during the Mongol-Tatar invasion, the city was taken by storm, looted and burned. The rise of Moscow and its formation as the capital of the Russian state takes place during the period of the Horde yoke.
11 Perevitsk
The city of Perevitsk was located on the cape of the right bank of the Oka River, in the area of the modern village of Perevitsky Torzhok. The site of the ancient settlement of a rectangular shape is surrounded by a rampart up to 7 m high. Old Russian Perevitsk was part of the Ryazan principality. It is mentioned in the annals only under 1389, however, the materials of archaeological research allow us to confidently attribute the foundation of the city to pre-Mongolian times.
12 Przemysl Moscow
Przemysl Moskovsky was located on the cape of the right bank of the Mocha River (the Moskva River basin), between ravines. Its remains are known as the Satino-Tatar settlement. The site of the fortified part of the ancient city is surrounded by a rampart up to 6 m high and a moat up to 4 m deep; around there are several unfortified settlements - the remains of the urban settlement. The remains of houses and fortifications of the XII-XIII centuries have been excavated. According to V.N. Tatishchev, founded in 1152 by Yuri Dolgoruky. Some modern researchers express doubts about the dating of the time of the creation of the city by the pre-Mongolian time and attribute it to a later period.
13 Rostislavl Ryazansky
Rostislavl, an ancient Russian city, located on the cape of the right bank of the Oka River, in the vicinity of the modern village of Poluryadenki. The hill fort is bounded by a moat and rampart up to 4.5 m high from the floor side. Posadas adjoin the fortified part of the city. Founded, according to chronicles, the Ryazan prince Rostislav Yaroslavich in 1153. Under the later layers and structures, the remains of residential and defensive structures of the XIIXIII centuries were investigated. A special group of ceramics of the “Rostislavl type” is distinguished, dating back to the 12th-14th centuries.
The foundation of Rostislavl is known from the Nikon chronicle: "Prince Rostislav Yaroslavich of Ryazan created the city of Rostislavl near the Oka River in his name." In May 1183, Rostislavl became one of the gathering points for the troops of the coalition of Russian princes for a campaign in the Volga Bulgaria, led by Vsevolod the Big Nest.
In 1342, Prince Yaroslav Alexandrovich Pronsky transferred the capital of the Ryazan principality from Pereyaslavl Ryazansky to Rostislavl. Bloody events were connected with this. In 1340, the Ryazan prince Ivan Ivanovich Korotopol killed his relative Alexander Mikhailovich Pronsky in the heat of a struggle for power. Two years later, his son Yaroslav received from Khan Dzhanibek a label for the Ryazan reign and the Tatar army.
In 1342, Yaroslav took Pereyaslavl and expelled his uncle Ivan from there. However, he did not dare to stay in the city, which he took with the help of the Tatars, and moved the capital to one of the largest cities of the Ryazan principality of that time. Probably, Rostislavl remained the capital for another two years, until the death of Yaroslav Pronsky in 1344.
With the annexation of the Ryazan principality to Moscow in 1521, Rostislavl lost its significance as a major center, giving way to its neighboring Zaraysk, where a brick fortress was built by 1531. During the fight against Crimean Tatars Rostislavl turned out to be one of the many fortifications along the Oka. Probably, at this time it was repeatedly ruined, as a result of which it fell into decay.
In 1874, the territory of Rostislavl was used by peasants as arable land. In the XX century. there were gardens of local residents, then - Apple orchard. At present, the settlement of Rostislavl is partially overgrown with forest, and most of its area is covered with grass. Archaeological work began in 1994. Since 2000, the Rostislav archaeological expedition has been working on the settlement every year.
14 Svirelsk
It is mentioned in the annals under 1176, in connection with the campaign of the Chernigov prince Oleg Svyatoslavovich. The city was located on the territory of the modern Moscow region, apparently - in the basin of the Oka River. The exact location of the city has not been established.
15 Teshilov
The city of Teshilov was located on the right bank of the Oka River, in the area between two deep ravines, near the modern village of Spas-Teshilovo. A shaft up to 6 m high and a ditch up to 4 m deep have been preserved on the floor side of the settlement. It is mentioned in the annals under 1147. Numerous cultural remains of the 12th-13th centuries were found on the site of the settlement and the settlements surrounding it - the settlements of the ancient Russian city. In 1237 it was burned by the Tatar-Mongols.
16 Tushkov
The city of Tushkov was located on the cape of the right bank of the Moscow River, in the area of the current village of Tushkov Gorodok. The settlement has been preserved, which is the remains of a fortified part of an ancient Russian small town that existed from the 12th-13th centuries, surrounded by a rampart up to 6 m high and a moat up to 3.5 m deep. Posadas were located to the south and east of the settlement.
17 Hotun
The city of Khotun was located on the cape of the left bank of the Lopasnya River, the left tributary of the Oka River. The remains of the settlement - the citadel of the ancient Russian city - are located near the southern outskirts of the village of Khatun. Most of the settlement is occupied by a modern cemetery. It was first mentioned in the spiritual charter of 1401-1402, however, the materials of archaeological research allow us to reasonably assume the existence of the city already in the pre-Mongolian period.
Pekunovskaya village. Fees from the coast
The internal planning of ancient Russian cities largely depended on the nature of the area on which they were located. Unfortunately, archeology does not currently have comprehensive materials on this issue.
The internal planning of ancient Russian cities largely depended on the nature of the area on which they were located. Unfortunately, archeology does not currently have comprehensive materials on this issue. Based on the excavations of Novgorod, Pskov, Staraya Russa and some other cities, it can be assumed that the plans of Russian cities of the XVII-XVIII centuries. (before the redevelopment of Catherine's time) to a certain extent reflect their historical topography. However, the opinion about the unconditional dominance of the radial-circular urban development in the era of Ancient Russia does not seem to be sufficiently substantiated. A similar type of planning of most cities took shape only in the 15th-17th centuries, when new fortifications surrounded the old centers in several concentric circles.
Largest cities Russia X-XIII centuries had the most developed and complex layout. It took shape during the growth of the urban area and organically united several fortified parts with open settlements, sometimes located at a different height level (near the river). A good example here is the development of Kyiv (Table 22). The oldest core of the city was located on the steep bank of the Dnieper, cut by ravines. It was based on the powerful fortifications of the cities of Vladimir and Yaroslav. Almost in the center of the latter there was a square with a huge Sophia Cathedral and the metropolitan court - the place of veche meetings of the people of Kiev. A street led here, crossing the city of Yaroslav from the southwest from the Golden Gates to the northeast to the Sophia Gates of the Detinets (approximately in the direction of modern Vladimirskaya Street). This through highway continued in the city of Vladimir, leading to the residence Kyiv princes- Yaroslavl Court, the Church of the Tithes and Yaabin Torzhka. Further along the "Borichev Uzvoz" she descended to Podol. Here, deviating to the west, the street, judging by the "Tale of Igor's Campaign", went to the Church of the Virgin Pirogoscheya and the Kyiv market. Crossing Podil parallel to the Kyiv mountains, she went out on the road to the St. Cyril Monastery and Vyshgorod.
Another highway crossed the Upper City perpendicular to the first one from the Zhidovsky Gates (from the Kopyrev End) to the Lyadsky Gates. It also flowed into Sofia Square. Other less significant streets and lanes of Kyiv, crossing the main highways, divided the city into quarters. The ring streets aphids only along the lines of fortifications and were primarily of military and defensive importance.
Thus, the basis of the street planning of Kyiv was formed by through highways that ran along the banks of the Dnieper or perpendicular to it. They linked together the three main socio-political and economic centers of the city: the residence of the metropolitan and veche square with the princely court and further with the market and the harbor. Then the most convenient movement of residents of any districts of Kyiv and its environs to the most important nodes of city life was ensured. In the planning scheme of Kyiv, one can feel a certain intention of its builders. It is difficult to consider the location on the same axis of the St. Sophia Cathedral, the princely court and the market or veche square at the intersection of two main thoroughfares of the Upper City as accidental. Apparently, these circumstances were taken into account in advance when planning city blocks.
Similar principles underlie the placement of streets in Novgorod, Smolensk and Vladimir on the Klyazma. The ancient planning of Novgorod is best studied. The peculiarity of the city was its location on two banks of the wide and full-flowing Volkhov. The natural center of the Sophia side was the citadel with the episcopal court and St. Sophia Cathedral, and the Trade center was the princely (Yaroslavl) court with the veche square and the market. Between themselves, they were connected by the Great Bridge across the Volkhov. Urban development spread both along the banks of the river and away from them. The planned scheme was built on a combination of longitudinal and transverse streets, and in Novgorod the exact position of many of them on the ground was recorded by archaeological excavations and observations. At the Nerevsky end, Velikaya Street ran parallel to the Volkhov to the Fedorovsky Gates of the citadel. In the Clyudny End, it probably corresponded to Bolshaya, or Breakdown Street. The same streets approached the trade from the Slavensky and Plotnitsky ends. Other streets crossed the city perpendicular to the Volkhov. And in Novgorod, as well as in Kyiv, there is a logically coherent system of streets connected together through thoroughfares. And here the street planierovna takes into account the natural growth of the urban area, when the communication of peripheral areas with the center is provided by the extension of the main streets and the addition of new passages perpendicular to the Volkhov.
A similar picture can be traced in Smolensk and Vladimir. Central, through streets were laid there parallel to the Dnieper and Klyazma. But in Vladimir the direction of such a street is well documented by the Golden and Silver Gates. In the same spirit, the original layout of Pskov developed, where Velikaya Street, which ran parallel to the Nelikaya River, practically connected all parts of the city into one whole.
All the above examples show that for the most ancient and largest cities of Russia in the X-XIV centuries. was characterized by a linear-transverse, and radially-circular grid of streets. Several factors contributed to this. First, the role of the organizing principle of the planned structure was played by the river, along the banks of which urban development developed. Secondly, in these cities already at an early stage of their history there were several socio-political and administrative centers. Thirdly, each district (end?) of the city, judging by the history of Novgorod, also had its own local veche center. The interconnection of all socio-economic centers of the city in the conditions of a linear-transverse layout of streets was carried out much better than in the presence of a radial-circular grid.
The layout of the streets in small towns was different. ancient Russian cities. The connecting link here was the street running along the inner perimeter of the defensive structures. Since in these cities, as a rule, there were only one gate, they departed from them: one or two streets that crossed the city in diameter. In this way, all courtyards in the city received free access to the street. Sometimes additional lanes were arranged, branching off to the sides from the main streets. Minsk, Toropets, Yaropolch Zalessky and the settlement of Slobodka had a similar layout.
Less well known is the street system of small towns located on capes at the confluence of two rivers. But it was among them that the future large centers of the late Middle Ages with a radial-circular layout dug in. The natural point of growth of such cities was the Kremlin, squeezed in a triangle between two water barriers. In the citadel or immediately under its steppes, practically on one rather limited area, both the princely court and Cathedral, and bargaining. The Kremlin becomes the sole center of the most important functions of the city. The growth of the urban area at first was possible only in the opposite direction from the arrow of the cape. And new fortifications with semicircles of their ramparts cut off new sections from it. Communication with the center was carried out along the rays - the streets, fanning out from the Kremlin. Old steppes dilapidated and understood. In their place, driveways free from buildings were formed. This is how the radial-circular layout of cities like Moscow and Pskov developed.
Among the first important archaeological features of the city is the courtyard and manor buildings. From the reports of the chronicle, it is known about the existence of courtyards in Kyiv, Chernigov, Galich, Pereyaslavl, Job-city. Smolensk, Polotsk, Rostov, Suzdal, Vladimir, Yaroslavl, Tver and many other cities. Both princely, boyar and episcopal courts, as well as the courts of unprivileged townspeople, are mentioned. Actual materials testify that courtyards in ancient Russian cities were inherited by will or by kinship, sold and bought. This is also evidenced by the birch-bark letter 424 of the beginning of the 12th century. from Novgorod (Artsikhovsky A.V., 1978, p. 32-33). Its author suggests that the father and mother sell the yard in Novgorod and go to him in Smolensk or Kyiv. Information from written sources leaves no doubt about the private property nature of the yard estates in the city. In large cities, there were thousands of households. For example, in 1211 in Novgorod, 43 (10 households and 15 churches) burned down during a fire (PIL, pp. 52, 250).
Thus, most of the territory of the city, as a rule, was occupied by courtyards, which were also fully owned by the townspeople. Consequently, the estate-yard with its residential and outbuildings, separated by palisades and fences from outside world, was a socio-economic cell, from the totality of which the city was formed.
Archaeological research, as noted above, in 32 cases found these city courtyards. They have been fully or almost completely studied in Kyiv, Novgorod, Pskov, Gus, Smolensk, and Minsk. Suzdal, Moscow, Yaropolche. "Zalessky, the ancient settlement of Slobodka, Ryazan and some other cities. different types. The main sign of the presence of manor buildings are traces of fences that separated the yard from the street and neighboring yards. Where the cultural layer preserves organic matter well, fences can be traced in the form of the remains of continuous palisades or stakes, slabs and boards, in the form of chains of columns or wickerwork. If the tree has not been preserved, then narrow grooves remain from the manor fences, where rows of logs were installed, or pits from poles and stakes.
The most characteristic feature of these fences is their amazing constancy. Once established, the boundaries of the estates have not changed for centuries. In Novgorod, at the huge Perovsky excavation site, developed in the middle of the 10th century. The borders of manor-yards existed until the second half of the 15th century practically without significant changes. This picture is repeated in all other excavations on the territory of the ancient Noi-city. Even more illustrative were the results of excavations in Kiev Podil. Here, in a number of places, the first estates arose at the end of the 9th - beginning of the 10th century. According to their borders remained unchanged for several centuries. Even after the floods of the Dnieper, when the yards were covered with thick deposits of sand and silt, fences and palisades were restored in their original places. The stability over time of ancient Russian urban land holdings is confirmed not only by data from Kyiv and Novgorod, but also by materials studied in other cities. Today this fact is reliably established by archeology. These observations lead to several important conclusions. Firstly, the constancy of city estate boundaries certainly testifies to the private ownership of the essence of land holdings in the city. If city estates had a temporary, for example, only economic character, various redevelopments and relocations of fences would be inevitable. Secondly, the townspeople turn out to be a corporation of landowners who collectively own the territory of the city. This is the social basis of the urban system of Russia. Thirdly, the sustainability of the yard plots once identified points to their direct connection with the organization of intra-urban life. Otherwise, they would have to be divided when inherited by several children or when sold in parts. But nothing like that. And ancient Russian legal monuments provide for the inheritance of the court by one of the sons, and not by all the children. It must be assumed that the possession of a yard plot in the city imposed certain duties on its owner: financial (lessons, tributes), developmental construction of fortifications, paving streets) and military. At the same time, the yard owner also acquired rights: first of all, the right to participate in city self-government. And if the total could still be calculated by lot, depending on the size of the part of the household, then it is impossible to divide the right to participate in city self-government in this way. The fixed set of rights and obligations of the yard owner to the urban community and the central government explains the constancy of the boundaries of urban estates in Ancient Russia. Consequently, the demarcation of the main territory of Russian cities into "yard tax places" is not an innovation of the 15th-16th centuries, but an order legalized in the previous era.
So the archeology present stage lifts the veil not only over the history of the material culture of ancient Russian cities, but also over the origins and features of their social organization.
The urban estates in Novgorod have been studied most fully. Interestingly, two types of courtyards were found here. The first is extensive, with an area of 1200-2000 square meters. m of the estate, not always the correct shape. On one or two sides they face the streets and are fenced with continuous log palisades. On the territory of such estates there were up to a dozen residential and commercial buildings. Among them, with its size, design features, as a rule, the house of the owner of the estate is expelled. Usually, 1 "buildings are located around the perimeter of the fence, but sometimes they also occupy the middle of the yard. The RGO always remains a space that is free from development. It happens that part of the shore was lined with a tree or special pavements from the gates to the houses. Keeping their main boundaries unchanged for a long period , these estates were sometimes divided by internal partitions into several plots.The second type - courtyards of rectangular outlines with an area of about 450 sq. m., with only two or three buildings. They are distinguished from the estates of the first type not only by smaller (3-4 times) sizes, but and a regular, standard character. Almost the same length and width, side by side with each other, they give the impression of a one-time measured and allotted plots of land by someone, and so they remain throughout their history.
An example of the estates of the first type are the estates of the Nerevsky excavation site on the Sofia side of Novgorod, and the estates of the Ilyinsky excavation site on the Torgovaya side of the second type. So, the estate "B", located at the intersection of Nelikaya and Kholopya streets, is being developed by building in the second half of the 10th century, acquiring a stable character at the beginning of the 11th century (Zasurtsev P.I., 1950, pp. 202-298). In terms of its territory, it is close to a triangle, the role of the sides of which is played by pavement streets and a palisade that ran from west to east and separated this estate from the neighboring estate “E”. The area of the estate "B" is close to 1200 square meters. m. Already in the XI century. the house of the owner of the estate stood out from other buildings, connected by a passage with another building and a wooden tower.
Among the various finds discovered here during excavations, a wooden cylinder stands out with the inscription “Three Emtsa hryvnias” and a princely sign. V. L. Yanin convincingly defined the purpose of such cylinders as a kind of constipation-seals, which simultaneously closed and sealed bags (bellows) with furs collected as tribute from the population of Novgorod lands (Yanin V. L., 1982, p. 138).
Yemets - important executive, who was in charge of the princely administration, judging by the "Ancient Truth", the collection of tribute. It belonged to him in the second half of the 11th century. homestead "G" The sack, sealed with a wooden cylinder, contained furs worth three flu, due to the German for his service.
The feudal, boyar character of the estate "B", which had already become quite apparent in the 11th century, is revealed in all its diversity in the subsequent years. In addition to the master's mansion, the remains of servants' houses, craft workshops, barns and cages, baths were found here. Of particular interest are the birch-bark writings found on the territory of the estate in the layers of the 12th-15th centuries. They depict the owners of the estate as large landowners who at the same time held important positions in the Novgorod administration. Among the birch bark letters are orders to servants on the sale and purchase of various property, and orders to collect debts and arrears, and appeals to the court, and reports on agricultural work in villages subject to the owners of the estate, and a note from Podvoisky about collecting in favor of Philip "honor" with fish etc. Thus, for five centuries the estate "B" belonged to people who invariably stood at the highest levels of the hierarchy of Novgorod society. These subordinated were numerous servants, they disposed of large sums of money, owned villages, were connected with the court and the collection of taxes and tributes. It is symptomatic that people dependent on them, including artisans, lived on the estate along with its owners.
The estates “A”, “B” and “E” of the Ilyinsky excavation site belong to the Novgorod courtyards of a different social appearance (Kolchin B. L., Chernykh N. B., 1978, pp. 57 - 110). The first two (the area, respectively, 415 and 405 sq. m.) faced Ilyina Street, and the third (450 sq. M.) - into a nameless lane. Almost equal-sized courtyards of estates since its inception in the middle of the 11th century. had a very stable layout. One / kilo house and two or three outbuildings (barn, barn, bathhouse) were located in the back of the yard. The residential building, as a rule, occupied the right corner farthest from the entrance, and other buildings - the left half of the courtyard, closer to the red line. The composition of the finds in these estates is much poorer than in the courtyards of the first type. On the estates "B" and "E" in the second half of the XIII century. jewelery workshops. Almost without any changes in the nature of the buildings and in the social status of their owners, these estates survived until the first half of the 14th century. But at that time, the territory of the three estates overlooking Ilyina Street was united into one large courtyard, the boyar affiliation of which is evidenced by birch bark documents.
The researchers of Novgorod convincingly qualify the owners of the estates of the first type as large feudal landowners, Novgorod boyars, and the owners of the estates of the second type as free, but unprivileged citizens. Different types of households in Novgorod correspond not only to the social class division of their owners, but also to two administrative-territorial systems of their organization (Yanin N.L., 1977, 1981). The first united at the ends, led by the posadnik (posadniks), and the second - and hundreds, led by sotsky and thousand (thousand).
Boyar courts were found in Novgorod in areas with ancient cultural strata. It is possible to trace the stages of their occurrence. Acquiring stable borders, these estates at the end of the X - beginning of the XI century. determine the direction of city streets. The data now available allow us to think that the boyar land ownership in Novgorod was primordial and its roots go back to the proto-urban period of its history (Yanin VL, Kolchip 1>. A., 1978, p. 38). It also turned out that the boyar families owned not one, but several estates. From several such family nests, the “end” was formed with its own Konchan veche and administration.
Hundreds of households appear later in areas not occupied by boyar nests. The standard dimensions and uniform construction of these yards leave no doubts about their secondary origin. They are cut and populated, apparently at the initiative of the princely authorities. After all, until the end of the XII century. Novgorod hundreds were directly subordinate to the prince.
Years of research in Novgorod made it possible to start studying the very mechanism of the formation of such a complex socio-economic phenomenon as a medieval city by means of archeology. Cities similar to Novgorod arose at the points of interaction of several processes. They were the result of the merging of the possessions of a number of boyar families around a single socio-political center during the period of crystallization of public (princely) power, which attracted a free population, but not associated with any particular community, to the nascent city. The courtyards of this free population are not of aristocratic origin as connective tissue filled the space between the boyar family nests and cemented the territory of the city into a single whole. Intertribal and tribal centers were the only possible places of interaction of the listed forces at the early stage of ancient Russian history.
The development of two types of courtyard and manor buildings in the process of the formation of the urban territory, which is typical for Novgorod, finds analogies in the materials of excavations in other cities. In Kyiv, it has not yet been possible to fully explore any boyar estate. They have only been partially studied. But the chronicle contains several colorful testimonies about the courts of the Kyiv boyars, which, one must think, were in no way inferior to the Novgorod boyars' estates. The courtyards of the unprivileged people of Kiev have been well studied in Podil in the last ten years. Six estates were traced on the former market square (Tolochko P. II., 1980, p. 85). Remains of log dwellings and outbuildings, courtyard pavements and fences made of wide boards or palisades have been preserved. All estates went to the stream. Residential buildings stood in the back of the yard along one side of the fence, and barns, barns, and industrial buildings along the other. The rectangular courtyards are strikingly similar to the courtyards of the hundredth population of Novgorod. They are lines, somewhat smaller but in area: about 300 kN. m. In other parts of Podil, estates with an area of about 600-800 square meters were found. m.
Boyar estates, which are no different from those in Novgorod, are being explored in Suzdal and Ryazan. The yard development of small towns founded at the end of the 11th - the middle of the 12th centuries has a certain originality. 13 Yaropolche Zalessky discovered six estates (two completely and four partially) (Sedova M.V., 1978, p. 49). The area of \u200b\u200bthe estate "G" is 1000 sq. m, and the estate "B" - 700 sq. m. The dimensions of other estates are not fully restored. The building was subordinated to the natural relief and in terms of the yards had no clear outlines. Several residential buildings, craft workshops and household buildings were found in each yard. Judging by the finds, the studied estates belonged to representatives of the princely administration and feudal landowners. Similar courtyards of somewhat smaller sizes were found in the settlement of Slobodka (Nikolskaya T.P., 1981, pp. 100-164).
To solve the problem of the population of ancient Russian cities, we still have insufficient data. First of all, the total area of the settlements is unknown. If the dimensions of the fortified core of the city are relatively easy to establish, then the populated territories adjacent to the city fortifications can only be determined with the help of targeted archaeological research. In addition, they surrounded the city not with a solid mite, but with spots, which seriously complicates the calculations.
Nevertheless, some considerations about the population of ancient Russian cities, based on the fact of their development, should be given. The estates of ordinary citizens in Novgorod measured 400-460 square meters. and, and in Kyiv - 300-800 sq. m. And in fact, and in another case, their average area can be equated to 400 sq. m. One family lived in such a yard. Independent demographic studies agree that the average family size - six people - was the same in the Middle Ages in Europe, and in Russia, and in the countries of the East. True, boyar estates in large ancient Russian cities exceeded the courtyards of ordinary citizens by 2.5-4 times in area. But about the same number of people lived here. Thus, with a certain degree of probability, it is possible to calculate the number of population within the city fortifications (the territory of continuous manor development). At the same time, it should be borne in mind that at least 15% of the city's area was occupied by streets, trading, public and religious buildings, etc. Then the density reached 120-150 people per 1 ha, which is two to three times lower than in the medieval cities of Europe and East. However, these figures are quite consistent with the yard-estate character of the development of ancient Russian cities.
Consequently, 10-12 thousand people lived in the Upper City of Kyiv (area 80 hectares). For the territory of Podil, the Kopyrev end, the Zamkovaya and Lysaya mountains (the total area is about 250 ha), the population density per 1 ha was probably less and did not exceed 100-120 people. Here, by the middle of the XIII century. about 25-30 thousand people lived. Finally, the outlying districts of the city could number 2-3 thousand people (an area of 30-35 hectares). The total population of Kyiv before the invasion of the hordes of Batu is equal to 37-45 thousand people. The last figure is close to the one obtained by P.P. Tolochko in a different way - 50 thousand people.
The population of Novgorod at that time hardly exceeded 30-35 thousand people. From 20 to 30 thousand people lived in other capitals of the ancient Russian lands-princes. In small towns, the building density of the fortified part, as can be seen from the examples of Yaropolk Zalessky and the settlement of Slobodka, was higher. Accordingly, the population density per 1 ha was about 200 people. Hence, the minimum population, which ensured the performance of the city's functions, should have reached 1000-1500 people. Of course, these figures are rather arbitrary. They will be refined in the process of expanding archaeological research. However, researchers already have material for comparisons and socio-economic conclusions in their hands.
It remains to say a few words about the social topography of ancient Russian cities. Archaeological excavations over wide areas have shaken the recently prevailing opinion about the clear social division of the cities of Russia in the 10th-13th centuries. to an aristocratic detinets and a trade and craft settlement (a roundabout town). In the preceding sections, the variety of planning schemes of many cities has been repeatedly noted. Cities with one, two or more fortified parts are known. In some cases, open settlements adjoined the fortified core, in others - development
did not even fill the entire territory inside the line of fortifications. Sometimes sparsely populated or completely uninhabited spaces were surrounded by ramparts, when old residential areas were located nearby. An example can be given when the detinets was equal in size or slightly smaller than the roundabout city-posad (Vyshgorod, Turov). Such a diversity of urban planning schemes does not indicate the existence of a deliberately clear social topography in ancient Russian cities. Archaeological materials do not always make it possible to discover deliberately isolated, socially opposite city blocks.
In the Upper City of Kyiv (Mountain), according to archaeological data, in addition to representatives of the boyar-princely elite of society, merchants and artisans lived (Tolochko P.P., 1980, p. 85). In the same place, according to written sources, the Jewish quarter was located, which can hardly be considered an aristocratic district of the city. At the same time, the courtyards of the feudal nobility are also found in Podil, a trade and craft settlement in Kyiv (Tolochko P.P., 1970, p. 136). Finds of treasures with expensive jewelry and excavation materials in the roundabout cities of Chernigov, Pereyaslavl, Galich, Izyaslavl, Pskov confirm that there were boyar courts here too, and in Galich many of them were generally located behind the line of city fortifications. In Ryazan, the estates of the boyars were located side by side with the estates of artisans on the territory of the huge Southern settlement. Aristocratic houses with stuccoed and frescoed walls have been explored in the roundabout town of Novogrudok. A stone church in the unfortified (?) settlement of Vasilev served as a tomb for some noble family. In Minsk, Pereyaslavl-Zalessky and other cities rebuilt at the end of the 11th-12th centuries. and consisting of only one fortified part, the aristocratic regions did not have any external signs. Finally, many years of excavations in Novgorod with surprising consistency record the presence of aristocratic boyar nests in all five parts of the city. Thus, the detintsy were not the only and indispensable place of residence and concentration of the feudal nobility of the ancient Russian cities.
The socio-political role of the Kremlin-detintsy is ambiguous. In a number of cases, they were entirely or partially occupied by princely and episcopal residences together (Chernigov, Pereyaslavl, Belgorod, Galich, Polotsk, Vladimir). In others, there were only princely (Kyiv) or only episcopal (Smolensk, Novgorod) courts. In small towns, a detinets could serve as a fortress for an ambush garrison (Voip, Izyaslavl, Novogrudok). Thus, the ancient Russian detintsy were not only the place of residence of the feudal aristocracy, but also the citywide citadel, where the official residences of secular and spiritual authorities were often located.
It is no coincidence that written sources do not know examples when the prince and the boyars would hide behind the steppes of the citadel from the indignant people. During urban unrest, the courts of individual boyars and princes were destroyed. The latter strove for their salvation not to take refuge in the child, but to completely flee from the city. Consequently, social boundaries passed primarily along the palisades and fences of boyar and princely family nests, located in many cases in strips with quarters inhabited by ordinary citizens. This circumstance contributed to the spread of influence of the boyars on the urban lower classes, prevented their consolidation and made it easier for the feudal lords to expand their territories in the city.
According to the book "Ancient Russia. City, castle, village. Edited by B.A. Kolchin. "Nauka", Moscow 1985
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Geometrically adjusted city plans were created, of course, without taking into account the beauty of the view from above. But beauty and convenience do not interfere with each other.
Brazil (Brazilia), Brazil
The main city of the largest state in South America was built in just 41 months. He received the capital status at his “birth”, in order, among other things, to end the dispute for him between Sao Paulo and Rio de Janeiro.
The architect Oscar Niemeyer, who designed most of the city's administrative buildings, was a staunch communist. It was he who proposed calling Brazil Brazil. He liked the way his name sounds in Russian home country(Portuguese: Brazil).
Brazil is one of the largest cities in the world built after 1900.
Canberra, Australia
The project was based on the concept of a garden city: numerous green spaces have become an integral part of Canberra. As conceived by Chicago architects Walter and Marion Griffin (wife), the capital of Australia was to become a city of the future, unlike any that existed at that time.
As in the case of Brazil, Canberra was called Canberra for a reason: from the ancient language of the local tribe, "canbarra" is translated as "a place for meetings."
Palmanova, Italy
It is the oldest planned city. Located on the border with Slovenia. It is a geometrically verified nine-sided fortress.
Each Palmanova bastion is protected by the two previous ones. Of course, no one was going to fight with Slovenia at that time - then it simply did not exist as a state. And the fortress helped a lot from the Turks.
El Salvador, Chile
The tiny town in the middle of the Andes was founded after copper ore was found in this area of Chile in 1954.
The plan was designed by American architects. El Salvador repeats the shape of a Roman warrior's helmet (not the most predictable place for a Roman theme).
The construction of the city went on for 5 years: 1954 to 1959. The population of El Salvador is 24 thousand people, of which 7000 are somehow involved in mining.
La Plata, Argentina
Another representative of South America in our hit parade. The city was founded as the capital, but not of the country, but of the state - after giving Buenos Aires the status Federal District, someone had to take his place, vacated after the "promotion".
The first stone in the foundation of La Plata in 1882 was laid just by the governor of Buenos Aires. After 2 years, La Plata became the first city Latin America with electric street lighting.
Washington, USA
This rating would not be worthy of publication without the capital of the United States of America. After the site for the construction of the capital of the new state was determined (1791), George Washington entrusted the development of the construction plan to the architect of French origin, Pierre Lanfant.
In the process of work, Washington quarreled with Langfan, and Andrew Ellicott had to implement the plans.
Jaipur, India
Another city born capital. Raja Sawai Jai Singh II made it the center of Rajasthan (now the eponymous state of India). The Pink City got its name because of the stone of an unusual color used in the construction. In 1853, to welcome the Prince of Wales, all the buildings in the city were painted pink.
The city is a huge blocks, separated by streets 40 meters wide. At the time of its founding (1727), Jaipur had the most innovative layout.
Adelaide, Australia
The state capital of South Australia was planned by its founding father, Colonel William Light, and named after Queen Adelaide.
The city is conceived in the form of a large lattice, in which wide boulevards and spacious squares intersect. The center is all green.
New Haven, USA, Connecticut
The city was founded in 1638 by five hundred Puritans who moved from the Massachusetts Bay Colony.
It is the first planned city in the United States. Initially, it consisted of nine squares with a park of 16 acres in the center. The famous Yale University is located in this city.
Belo Horizonte, Brazil
"Beautiful Horizon" was conceived as the capital of the state and became the first city in the country, built according to the plan.
When creating the project, the architects were inspired by the drawings of Washington, and transferred some features of the US capital to their paper.
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