Athenian trade. Maritime trade in Greece. Sparta and Thebes

According to the statistics of the Internet portal LiveInternet, more than 320 million users visit Vkontakte every month - this figure exceeds the population of the Russian Federation by 2.5 times! Naturally, the huge audience of the leading Russian social network allows enterprising administrators of popular groups and publics to earn money in the hundreds of thousands, or even millions of rubles.

How much can you earn on Vkontakte communities?

You can earn income from a group in VK in different ways:

• first, to sell advertising;
• secondly, post videos;
• thirdly, to participate in affiliate programs.

We will analyze each of the above types of earnings in detail, but first you need to consider that the income of any community on Vkontakte depends on factors such as:

1. Themes of the group - the most profitable are the publics of the following categories: business, humor, leisure, art, personal development, beauty industry.
2. The cost of advertising a specific public page, which is set in accordance with its focus, number, age and activity indicators of subscribers.
3. The productivity of an SMM manager is calculated based on the attracted audience for a certain period of time.

How much can you earn selling ads?

Duration of placement: according to the standard - 24 hours, where for one hour the advertising post occupies the top line of the microblog or is fixed on the main page of the group, the remaining 23 - hangs on the wall until deleted. Also, the terms of placement can be negotiated with the advertiser on an individual basis for an additional fee.

The cost of advertising is determined only by the management of the public, but in order to successfully compete with other sites, it is recommended to set a fee ranging from 1% to 5% of the total number of subscribers. Those. if the community size is 300 thousand people, then the price of 1 post will be at least 3,000 rubles, maximum - 15,000 rubles. Again, much will depend on the theme of the group, activity and target audience of users.

Important! The VK administration allows no more than 5 advertising publications per day, otherwise the public may be subject to sanctions.

• Sociate.ru;
• Socialtools.ru;
• Vktarget.ru;
• Plibber.ru.

How can you make money on video promotion?

Publishing a video compares favorably with paid reposts in that subscribers perceive it as an integral part of the generated content. The main thing is to write an interesting eyeliner to provoke the user to get acquainted with the video. The price of 1 viewing varies from 0.3 to 0.6 rubles. (300-600 rubles / 1,000 or 3,000-6,000 / 10,000 views).

• viboom.com;
• videoseed.ru.

Affiliate programs and CPA services

Participation in affiliate programs allows publics to earn on a percentage of sales of certain goods, services or information products. It is impossible to say how much money such a source of income brings. Here you need to take into account the terms of cooperation with the marketing company, as well as the desire and financial capabilities of subscribers to acquire positions advertised by the community.

In turn, CPA services operate in the same way as affiliate programs, but here the remuneration is paid based on the actions performed by attracted users: registering on the site, downloading applications, clicking on ads, etc.

How much do the owners of top communities on Vkontakte receive?

Unfortunately, the vast majority of administrators of popular publics in VK do not want to talk about how much they earn. We will have to make approximate calculations of the profit of a particular group ourselves, taking into account the cost of 1 advertising post. Recall that according to the rules of Vkontakte, the maximum number of publications for marketing purposes is 5 placements per day.

• The price of 1 advertising post/repost is 75,000 rubles.
• Monthly income - 2,250-11,250 million rubles.
• Subscribers – 6.9 million

It is noteworthy that before the Smolninsky District Court of St. Petersburg banned the broadcasting of Mudakoff (MDK) in the Russian Federation in October 2015, the cost of advertising in the community was 80,000-200,000 rubles, this is an absolute record for Vkontakte. However, today the future of the MDK public remains a big question.

• The price of 1 advertising post/repost is 82,600 rubles.
• Monthly income - 2.478-12.390 million rubles.
• Subscribers – 6.3 million

IGM

• The price of 1 advertising post/repost is 44,250 rubles.
• Monthly income - 1.327-6.637 million rubles.
• Subscribers – 3.8 million

• The price of 1 advertising post/repost is 25,075 rubles.
• Monthly income - 0.752-3.761 million rubles.
• Subscribers - 3.4 million

• The price of 1 advertising post/repost is 21,387 rubles.
• Monthly income - 0.641-3.208 million rubles.
• Subscribers – 6.2 million

The top communities on Vkontakte are successful commercial projects that are being worked on by professional SMM managers, moderators, and numerous teams of content makers. Naturally, each specialist on such groups earns good money. Therefore, it is difficult for us to calculate how much the costs of popular publics are in relation to net profit.

Nevertheless, we must state the fact that social networks have long become effective tools for promoting goods and services on the Internet, leaving traditional methods of marketing positioning in the distant past.

Many Internet users are wondering: how can I make money on Vkontakte on a group? Real earnings are a tasty morsel, which is obtained from maintaining a personal group on the Vkontakte social network.

As a rule, the owners of well-promoted groups earn very good money. Earnings in VK on a group start from several hundred rubles a day and can reach several thousand, sometimes more. Below we consider the most popular ways to make money in VK.

1. How to make money on the Vkontakte group. Where to begin

In general terms, we will consider the types and essence of making money on VKontakte, which is described in more detail below.

In order to achieve significant earnings on the Vkontakte group, you must first create it. Then you need to work on the promotion of the group and increase the total number of subscribers. The theme of your group is also important. It is best when it is close to commercial, but the entertainment theme also allows you to make good money.

Let's assume that you have already created a group in contact and promoted it a little, i.e. Your group's daily attendance has increased significantly.

There are many ways to monetize your group in the social. Vkontakte networks. Let's take a look at the most common ways to make money on VK groups below.

Read everything about making money in VK below

2. Ways to earn money in VK

How to make money on Vkontakte advertising

In order to make money in a contact on advertising, you need to find advertisers on your own, or in the group itself, indicate your contact details so that anyone can place their ads for the agreed price in your group.

Advertising can be of a different nature, ranging from an entry in a group about the advertised product or service to placing a link to the site or the advertiser's group. You specify the cost of advertising yourself. You can specify how 100 rubles (then there will be a lot of applications), and 1000 rubles (there will be fewer applications).

for instance, if your group for such a request as "business" in the social. Vkontakte network ranks first, then in this case, you can charge from $ 50 or more per month just for the fact that somewhere in the group a link to the advertiser will be placed.

On these sites, you can also earn money by liking messages and posting them on your page, joining other people's groups and adding some applications.

How to make money in contact by creating an online store

You can easily create a full-fledged online store from your group, where you can trade anything you like, as well as offer some services for money. (Read also how to earn more in an online store during sales down seasons). For example, sell men's and women's accessories, clothing, for example, t-shirts, equipment, etc. But here, as in any, you will need to think in advance about the delivery and payment for goods.

In contact, depending on the popularity of your online store and the product you have chosen, you will earn from 500 or more rubles a day.

It is also necessary to carefully consider business schemes, since an online store is a full-fledged business. Here it is also important to think over the schemes for the delivery of goods, delivery, favorable prices (not too expensive and not quite cheap), order processing, non-payment calculation, etc.

We recommend choosing a product with a high margin , i.e. with a large difference between the purchase price and the sale price. Then it will be profitable to engage in sales and make money on VKontakte, you will always succeed.

Let's give an example in the screenshot of groups of online stores that earn in VK:

Earnings on VKontakte through a group as an online store

How to earn Vkontakte on affiliate programs

First you need to register in one of the affiliate programs and by advertising the link you received from the affiliate, you will be able to receive interest from the sale of any product or service. (more about earnings on affiliate programs)

Those who are already making money on affiliate programs on the Internet say that Forex affiliate programs can be considered quite good (learn more about making money on Forex), as well as affiliate programs of various online stores, etc.

For example, in the OZONE online store, from each sale of goods you are charged from 10% to 20%. Suppose you were able to sell a product for one thousand rubles, and at a rate of 20% you will receive 200 rubles from the sale.

Earnings in VK on downloads from file hosting

You can upload various files to any file sharing services and then invite your group's subscribers to download them. Most file hosting services pay for the number of downloads. There are also free file sharing services where you will not be paid anything for downloading. For example, file hosting on narod.ru

It will be quite difficult to earn a lot, approximately it is from $ 5-10 per thousand downloads. But here, too, much depends on factors such as the size of the hosted file, the uniqueness of the IP address of the user who downloaded the file, etc.

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How to make money selling a group in contact

By creating and selling promoted groups, you can make good money on VK. For example, popular groups with real subscribers in the amount of 100,000 people start from 80,000 - 100,000 rubles or more.

So, let's figure out what it takes to make money:

1. Register on the social network Vkontakte (create your own account)
2. Create a "public", group (do not confuse with your user page)
3. Promote your group, i.e. make it so that many users of the social network (subscribers) subscribe to it
4. Earn by placing ads in your group or page (group, public - the page in this case is the same). You can also earn money by posting affiliate links of various services, etc.

Let's consider each point in more detail, starting with the point

Creating a group in VK

Anyone can create an account (register in the social network Vkontakte). Also, anyone can create a group or a public page. But for this you need to decide on what topic you will create it. You need to choose a topic based on the interest of the majority of users who in the future will be able to subscribe to it and it will be of interest to subscribers.

After you decide on a theme, you need to beautifully design your group. To do this, come up with an attractive text that can entice users to sign up for your page.

At the moment, a group with the statements of famous people is popular, where a beautiful picture is selected. Such groups often have many subscribers. Since there are already a large number of such groups and pages, you need to be different and provide your subscribers with something interesting, otherwise your group will be another group with celebrity statements.

An example of a group page on VKontakte that has more than a million subscribers

To the page "Philosophy and others." more than 2 million users of the social network have subscribed

3. How to promote a group in VK and make money

Creating a group is very simple, but getting a large number of people to subscribe to it is quite difficult. To do this, you will need to publish several dozen entries on the wall of your page so that the person who visits your page sees what is being published and wants to subscribe to it.

But if only you are subscribed to the page, then hardly anyone will subscribe to the news of your group. So what to do in this case?

Here are some popular ways to attract subscribers:

• Invite as many of your friends as possible to your group;
• You can also wind up subscribers to the page through various services, for example, olike.ru. This is a service through which you can get likes (hearts), subscribers, etc. for free. The service works, tested in practice.

Service olike.ru - promotion of groups for making money on VKontakte

After you manage to reach subscribers from 1 thousand or more, you can move on;

• Launch advertising of your page or group in other pages - groups (by paying money for advertising to the creators);
• Use various services where you can earn or buy points, likes, etc. and spend them on increasing subscribers to a group or reposting your posts;
• Spam on various walls of other thematic groups (not recommended);

• You can also use paid software from Viking-Studio, which has many options for promotion. (Site viking-studio.com);
• Upload a video on youtube for your topic and below the videos indicate a link to your group. This is how you attract people to subscribe to your public.

These are, perhaps, all the most famous ways to promote groups. You can also try to use a lot of keywords in the title of your page so that when you search in the VKontakte search box, your group can be easily found. But the technical support service monitors the re-optimization in the names of the groups.

4. We bring clients and buyers to the group

Even a well-promoted group on VKontakte does not guarantee that community members will be active and make it easy to earn money. Many on social networks join groups without serious intentions and are not ready to make purchases or pay for services in the future.

In order for the group to become a source of solid income in the future, care should be taken to attract real customers and buyers to it. It is difficult to do this inside a social network, but it is quite possible to bring customers from Google and search engines using teaser advertising. Be sure to take note of the possibilities of modern teaser advertising. We also advise you to download our free course on 7 teaser advertising secrets that allow you to attract customers on the Internet from 30 kopecks.

Watch also a video from expert Andrey Merkulov on how to properly use online advertising tools:

5. The group is promoted - how to make money?

Now the question arises - how to make money if there is a promoted group?

Consider in detail the three most popular ways to make money in VK

Way to make money in VK No. 1 - Advertising on the wall of your group

An example of how a promoted group makes money on advertising

Read 5 more articles

Are you one of the users of the social network VK and heard from the corner of your ear that you can earn decent money here? Yes, it is indeed possible, which many users successfully do. Do you want to become one of them? Today we will reveal all the nuances and tell you in detail how to make money on a group in contact.

There are, of course, other small part-time jobs, but you should not count on high incomes there. It is the creation of your own resource - a group or, as they are also called, a public, that can help you reach at least the average salary in your city, and with the right approach, you can count on much more money.

From this article you will learn:

What you need to know about making money on groups in contact

There are tens of thousands of groups and communities on the VKontakte social network. Initially, most were created with the aim of creating a place for communication and information exchange of like-minded people, but it soon became clear that with their help you can get a good income.

How much you can earn on a group in VK is difficult to answer unambiguously, it all depends on many factors, such as:

• the number of subscribers;
• subject matter;
• promotion methods.

If you approach the matter responsibly and correctly use the available means of promotion, over time you can achieve that the community will bring in a month quite sufficient funds for life.

You need to be prepared for the fact that you won’t be able to make money quickly on your group: you need to attract a large number of subscribers, regardless of which method of profit will be used, advertising, partnership or another. And also you need to choose the right profitable topic in which you are guided.

IMPORTANT. If you develop too quickly and with "illegal" methods, the site may block the community for cheating members.

We will tell you in detail about how much the administrators of Vkontakte groups earn and how they do it.

TOP 5 ways to make money on groups in VK

You can start earning with the help of a group in contact using the following ways 👇 :

• placement of advertising posts;
• participation in affiliate programs;
• offer their services and goods;
• video placement;
• sale of a ready-made community.

Many owners often combine them, receiving additional profit.

I have listed and I want to talk in more detail about these 5 options, but of course, everything is not limited to this. As the community develops, you will have new ideas for its monetization, the main thing, as they say, is to start.

Sale of advertising

• vktarget.ru;
• socialite.ru;
• blogun.ru;
• plibber.ru.

How many followers do you need to benefit? Most advertisers prefer to cooperate with publics in which the daily reach of users exceeds 20 thousand. If you have achieved this result, register on the Vkontakte website advertising exchange and get a decent profit.

Sale of goods and services

There are two ways to earn money in this case:

• By organizing an online store- now many are ordering goods from foreign sites such as AliExpress and reselling at a higher cost.

How much can you earn on a VKontakte group in this way? It all depends, again, on the number of subscribers, the relevance of the products offered and their prices. On small products, the owners of a promoted public receive from 1000 rubles per day , for larger entrepreneurs, this amount can reach several tens of thousands.

Partnership programs

To make money on your group, you can use affiliate programs: you sell someone's goods, and for this you get a percentage of the cost. There are many affiliate programs on the Internet, not all of them offer exactly products - a percentage can be paid:

• for registering and spending a user on a dating site;
• conclusion of an agreement for the provision of advertising services or the creation of a website;
• for issuing a credit card at a bank, etc.

ADVICE. You need to choose the right ones that can interest a significant part of the audience of your group, since your earnings directly depend on how much you guess the needs of your audience.

Video placement

How to make money on Vkontakte on video? Quite simply, if the number of subscribers in the group is more than 15 thousand people (such restrictions are in the rules of the sites below). The method works only for live views and is not effective if the number of participants has been cheated. There are two most popular services for cooperation:

• videoseed.ru;
• viboom.com.

Pay per view from 30 to 80 kopecks , so it will be easy for each owner to figure out how much you can earn on your Vkontakte public.

Community Sale

Is it possible to earn big money by selling a public? Definitely yes.

The scheme is simple - just 3 steps:

• you create a public;
• attract a certain number of subscribers;
• put up for sale on third-party services.

ADVICE. If you develop a VKontakte group for a long time, given the time costs, it will not bring you high income. It is much more profitable to create a specialized community dedicated to the release of a new game or a large-scale event, and promote it according to the most popular requests.

An example of a community where you can sell and buy publics

How much the owner of such groups earns on sales is a difficult question, it all depends on the number of subscribers and topics. There are offers up to 1000 rubles and below for relatively new publics, while a well-publicized community can cost tens of thousands.

How much do popular VKontakte groups earn

To learn about the earnings of specific groups, you can look at how much they sell ads for (this is the most common way to make a profit).

Example 1 Community - Placement Price - 14 thousand rubles with an audience of almost 4 million subscribers .

Example 2 "" - the cost of an advertising post is almost 5000 rub. with subscribers in 60 thousand with a ponytail.

Example 3 «» – 3.6 thousand rubles at 1.1 million subscribers .

Example 4 "" - will place an advertising post for 5.7 thousand rubles , lecture hall - 3.3 million joined the community .

An important factor that advertisers pay attention to is daily ad reach, that is, how many people viewed the ad post. This data is also visible on each screenshot.

How to start making money on VK groups - step by step instructions

You already know how to make money on groups in contact, now we will tell you step by step what needs to be done in order to start earning income. To do this, follow 6 steps in sequence 👇 .

Step 1 Choosing a subject

Can be distinguished three main themes, which allow you to earn maximum amounts on VKontakte:

Step 2 Create a group

Almost anyone knows how to create a group in VK: you need to go to the appropriate section on your account and select the "create a community" item. Next, you choose its type, come up with a name, fill in the description and the necessary data.

Step 3 Filling with content

In order to develop a group in contact and make money on it, you need to fill it with interesting and, preferably, unique content.

For maximum efficiency, it is necessary to draw up a schedule according to which records will be fasted.

IMPORTANT. For each audience, hours of activity vary significantly. Therefore, it is important to understand when people who have joined your community are sitting in VK. For example, it is not right for a student audience to post in the morning, as students are either sleeping or in pairs.

All filling work can be done by auto-posting services, which will independently select the appropriate information and post it strictly at the specified time.

Step 4 Promotion

I repeat that before proceeding with the promotion of groups, they need to be filled at least a little, since no one wants to join empty communities.

There are paid and free methods for promotion.

Free:

1. Mutual entry- announcements about them can be found or created in the relevant publics. It is ineffective, since no more than 25-35 people can be recruited per day, who will be inactive.
2. Cheat by automatic free services. Allows you to attract a larger number per day, but users, as in the previous case, will be inactive.
3. Mutual advertising. An effective method in the presence of 500 or more subscribers. Consists in search of the groups interested in mutual advertizing.

Paid:

1. Buying entries on specialized services. For good promotion, it requires significant costs, while most of the users will not be interested in the topic, and some of them will be bots at all.
2. Paid advertising. Effective if you have at least a thousand subscribers. The most common option that everyone has seen is adding an incomplete post with a link to the public.

Step 5 Monetization

After the public has gained a certain number of users who have joined, you can start monetization - earning money on the VK group. Place ads, add paid videos, participate in affiliate programs and various projects that offer payment for certain actions - placing orders, registering for services, viewing.

Step 6 Withdraw money

Each affiliate program offers the withdrawal of earned funds to different wallets - YandexMoney, WebMoney, Qiwi.

IMPORTANT. Please note that there is always a certain withdrawal minimum and some have an initial time limit.

What can a beginner expect?

I wonder how much VKontakte communities earn on advertising? The average data is as follows:

• With 5 or more million subscribers - from 5 to 20 thousand rubles for 1 advertisement.
• From 500 thousand to 2-4 million people - 1-5 thousand rubles for the post.

For smaller communities, the price is individual and depends on a large number of factors: topics, age and solvency of the audience, and others.

In general, you can successfully earn money in other social networks. Read on and you might be tempted to create your own YouTube channel.

So, we told in detail how you can make money on VKontakte publics and provided approximate income data. As already mentioned, the benefit depends on many circumstances, and often differs greatly among the owners of groups similar in subject matter. Now the main thing is for you to take the first step, knowing that this business can be quite profitable, and, perhaps, soon you yourself will easily tell anyone how you can make big money on social networks.

The fact of the existence of relations between the Phoenicians and Greeks in the Mycenaean era can be considered, apparently, established. The Phoenicians brought oriental goods, took away raw materials. The well-being of the coastal inhabitants increased, the needs increased; native industry began to imitate overseas products.

The main industry in the Mycenaean era was metal. Metals became the most valuable object of trade and within the country, where the measure of value was cattle. In the 8th century sailing begins among the Greeks, but the influence of the Phoenicians does not fall. Bread was the main import. Cattle and jewels, as a measure of value, first gave way to ingots of copper and iron, and then to noble metals, by weight units; finally, a coin was borrowed from Lydia.

9. Features of the political system of the first states.

The share of slave labor was relatively small, although it was constantly increasing. Other forms of exploitation of the free (usury, hiring workers, etc.), as well as subjugated tribes, also increased. All this ultimately had an impact on the state.

Being an instrument of class domination, it has established itself in a number of major countries (but not everywhere) in the form of the so-called. eastern despotism. All power, not limited by law, belonged to the monarch, deified and ruling through the army and bureaucracy. The ideological basis of despotism was religion, which deified the personality and power of the head of state.

There was a certain pattern in the development of a despotic form of government. The original state structures usually arose on the basis of and within the territorial boundaries of individual tribes or tribal unions, preserving many vestiges of the primitive communal system. These small states were headed by rulers, often descendants of tribal leaders, whose power was limited by the council of the nobility and the popular assembly. Such power structures, initially not always monarchical, as a result of alliances and especially conquests, turned into large relatively centralized states. Their formation was largely due to the need to maintain in due order the irrigation system common for most of the river valley.

As the class and national tasks of the state became more complex, and especially as the political self-isolation of rural communities continued, the monarchy in a number of countries, without encountering serious opposition from the people, gradually acquired the form of despotism.

10. The addition of the Egyptian civilization, its features

The ancient Egyptians created a high level, complex in structure, rich in content culture, which had a huge impact on the cultural development of not only many peoples of the Middle East, but also the ancient Greeks. Many cultural values ​​created by the Egyptians have entered the treasury of world culture and have now become the property of all mankind and therefore deserve attention.

Egyptian culture was created for about four millennia and went through a long and difficult path of its development. The development of ancient Egyptian culture and its high level determined, first of all, the features of the socio-economic system of Ancient Egypt. The economic development of the Nile Valley, the creation of rationally organized agriculture, the general rise of the entire economy created the material basis for cultural creativity. At the same time, achievements in the field of culture, education, science, and the general spiritual development of the ancient Egyptians undoubtedly became one of the important reasons for improving socio-economic relations and the state.

The originality and originality of culture were determined by the early emergence of class relations and the state, also by the rather isolated geographical position of the Nile Valley, which made it difficult for the contacts of the ancient Egyptians, and, consequently, borrowing the cultural achievements of other peoples. The nature of the natural conditions of the Nile Valley left a deep imprint on the entire Egyptian culture. The decisive role of the Nile in the economy, life, everyday life, the sizzling sun in summer and beneficent in winter, remoteness from the sea, the destructive desert surrounding the Nile Valley with its heat, dust storms and predatory animals determined the specifics of the Egyptian worldview and religious cult, the entire system of spiritual values. Only by common work, organized by the strong power of the pharaoh, the Egyptians could create the conditions for a normal life. Therefore, fear of the formidable forces of nature, embodied in ferocious deities, of the all-destroying power of the pharaoh, their absolute greatness and power permeated the entire worldview of the Egyptian in antiquity.

Egyptian culture is characterized by deep conservatism and traditionalism. The Egyptians avoided radical innovations in their system of cultural values. Their main principle was the careful preservation and imitation of already known ideas, canons, artistic techniques. Of course, this did not deny the emergence of new elements, new ideas and new techniques, but they appeared slowly, manifested themselves only in line with traditional ideas and were perceived not so much as fundamentally new phenomena, but as an improvement of existing models. Traditionalism and conservatism of thinking led to the creation of thoroughly developed purely Egyptian canons and images, to that organic combination of skill, conceptuality and professionalism, which is so characteristic of the masterpieces of Egyptian art.

Egypt - "Gift of the Nile", river civilization. Its main food was the ebbs and flows of the river, which left behind fertile silt, contributing to the development of agriculture, and made it possible to build complex irrigation systems. Also, thanks to the creation of an irrigation system of dams and canals, the river was controlled and directed in the right direction, which made it possible to avoid floods. Egypt was characterized by despotism, the confession was the one that the emperor would say, the pharaoh was the son of God, i.e. subordination of the clergy and state power to the pharaoh. The complex structure of the Egyptian religion paid great attention to the afterlife, and the Egyptians invented many ways to mummify their deceased kings in order to ensure their worthy existence in the other world. In the same period, castes of priests and officials arose and established themselves.

The Egyptians were pagans, but the sun god Ra was considered the main god. The Egyptians achieved great success in science (mathematics, calculate (the number "pi"), they knew how to prove the Pythagorean theorem, astronomy was developed). One of the first calendars was created in Egypt. The Egyptian year was divided into 12 months, each of which had 30 days.

The life of Egypt was very closely connected with the natural cycles of the river. The first states in Egypt arose as religious centers. At the head of such associations were high priests-priests. These settlements were called "nomes". Each nome sought to ensure that more people visited his temple, since then taxes went to this temple. Therefore, the nomes constantly competed with each other and fought for spheres of influence and territories. Gradually, two states were formed on the territory of Egypt: Upper and Lower Egypt. Around 3000 B.C. King Menes of Upper Egypt subjugated Lower Egypt. The unification of the two parts of the country acquired a religious meaning. The king of united Egypt began to be called "pharaoh", was considered a living god and personified absolute power. All cultivated land was considered the property of the pharaoh, but he distributed part of this land to his relatives and nobles. The pharaoh ruled the country, relying on the bureaucracy. Only a competent person who successfully passed all the tests could become an official. Not everyone could get an education, so officials were considered a privileged class. They represented the power of the pharaoh in nomes, collected taxes, kept records of household supplies, conducted a census of the population, hired workers to build pyramids.

11) The origin of the state in China. Socio-economic and political background.

Ancient Chinese civilization arose on the basis of the Neolithic cultures that developed in the 5th-3rd millennia BC. e. in the middle reaches of the Yellow River. The Huang He basin was the main territory for the formation of the ethnic community of the ancient Chinese. Only from the middle of the 1st millennium BC. e. the expansion process begins. Pre-imperial China is a collection of tribal communities. The prerequisites for the emergence of the state can be called such factors as the assimilation of agriculture (soil reclamation), the gradual improvement of metal (bronze), with this there was a complication of military affairs (after all, military skill was necessary, etc.), which led to the stratification of society: those who obey and who dominates, who cultivates the land and who fights. The appearance of an exchange, which soon developed into trade. Formation of administrative apparatus, etc. And also the presence of a single faith (if you can call it that), religiosity or superstition. Also, the isolated development of civilization played a role. The ancient Chinese class society and statehood formed somewhat later than the ancient civilizations of Ancient Western Asia, but nevertheless, after their emergence, they begin to develop at a fairly fast pace and in Ancient China high forms of economic, political and cultural life are created, which lead to the folding of the original socio-political and cultural system.

12) The specifics of the development of ancient India. River civilization, vast territory, forests, rains, mountains…. However, vegetation and swamps were a big obstacle for the ancient farmers armed with stone and copper axes. Therefore, the first settlements appear in India in the less wooded north-west of the country. The Indus Valley had another advantage. It was closer to the ancient states of Western Asia, which facilitated communication and trade with them.

In the III and the first half of the II millennium BC. e. in the Indus Valley there was a single state with two capitals. These are Harappa in the north and Mohenjo-Daro in the south. The inhabitants were divided into several social classes. Priests played a big role. With the decline of the Indian state, the public organization also collapsed. Writing has been forgotten. Appearing in the middle of the II millennium BC. e., the Aryans brought with them their social organization. It was based on the division of society into "ours" (Aryans) and "strangers" (dases). Using the right of the conquerors, the Aryans gave the Dasas a dependent position in society. There was also a division among the Aryans themselves. They were divided into 4 estates-varnas (Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras, which appeared in the early 1000s and meant a servant, these are all non-Aryans). The “untouchables” had the lowest position, they were not included in any of the varnas, they did the dirtiest work.

With the development of crafts, the growth of population and the complication of social life, in addition to varnas, an additional division into professions appeared. This fragmentation is called division into castes. And in a certain varna, like a caste, a person fell by birthright. If you are born in a brahmin family, you are a brahmin; if in a sudra family, you are a sudra. Belonging to one or another varna and caste determined the rules of behavior for every Indian. The further development of Indian society led in the middle of the 1st millennium BC. e. to the emergence of kingdoms headed by rajas. At the end of the IV century. BC e. a mighty empire is formed in India. Its founder was Chandragupta, who stopped the advance of the army of Alexander the Great. This power reached its highest power under the grandson of Chandragupta Ashok (263-233 BC).

Already in the III millennium BC. e. The main occupation of the inhabitants of the Indus Valley was agriculture (wheat, barley, peas, millet, jute and, for the first time in the world, cotton and sugar cane). Animal husbandry of cows, sheep, goats, pigs, donkeys, elephants is developed. The horse came later. The Indians were well acquainted with metallurgy. The main tools of labor were made of copper (knives, spear and arrowheads, hoes, axes, etc.). As well as bronze, gold, lead.

The craft was also developed. Spinning and weaving played an important role. The skill of jewelers (they processed precious metals and stones, ivory and shells). Maritime and land trade reached a high level. The most active trade was with the Southern Mesopotamia. Cotton and jewelry were brought here from India. Barley, vegetables, fruits were brought to India. There were trade links with Egypt and the island of Crete.

With the decline of Indian culture, economic life came to a standstill. Appeared in the middle of the II millennium BC. e. The Aryans were nomads and lagged far behind the Indians in economic development. The only thing in which the Aryans were ahead of the Indians was in the use of the horse. Only at the turn of II - I millennia BC. e. the new population of India - the Indians - again switched to agriculture. Crops of wheat, barley, millet, cotton and jute appeared. Via elephants people successfully fought the impenetrable jungle. Metallurgy is developing. Having quickly mastered bronze, already at the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. e. Indians learned how to mine iron. This greatly facilitated the development of new lands previously occupied by swamps and jungles. The craft is also being revived. Again, a prominent place in the economy is occupied by pottery and weaving. Indian cotton fabrics were especially famous, they were very expensive. In honor of the goddess of arable land, Sita, they were called chintz. Only trade remained at a low level. It was limited to the exchange of goods between neighboring communities.

13) Ancient Greece as the cultural center of the ancient world.

The Mediterranean Sea has become the center of attraction for peoples. In 8-6 in BC a civilizational revolution took place on the territory of Dr. Greece, as a response to natural conditions. The geopolitical and cultural fact also played an important role in the formation of a great civilization (there would not be such a diverse people). The peculiarities were that: plots of land became individual property, in contrast to the eastern powers. The owners of the land united in policies (city-states) to resolve joint issues, democracy prevailed. It is Greece that is considered the cultural center of the ancient world, because in it the first people moved away from mythology to rationalism. The struggle for equality against the aristocracy was the cause of the rapid development of crafts and trade. In the ancient world, the foundations of civil society were laid, providing for the right of every citizen to participate in government, recognition of his personal dignity, rights and freedoms. The state did not interfere in the private life of citizens, or this interference was insignificant. Trade, crafts, agriculture, the family functioned independently of the government, but within the law. Roman law contained a system of rules governing private property relations. The citizens were law-abiding. However, democracy in the ancient world was of a limited nature: the obligatory presence of a privileged stratum, the exclusion from its action of women, free foreigners, slaves.

Slavery also existed in the Greco-Latin civilization. One of the features of the civilization of classical Greece was the rapid rise of material and spiritual culture. In the area of ​​the development of material culture, the emergence of new technology and material values ​​was noted, handicrafts developed, sea harbors were built and new cities arose, the construction of sea transport and all kinds of cultural monuments, etc., went on.

The product of the highest culture of antiquity is the civilization of Hellenism, the beginning of which was laid by the conquest by Alexander the Great in 334-328. BC e. Persian power, covering Egypt and a significant part of the Middle East to the Indus and Central Asia. The Hellenistic period lasted three centuries. In this wide space, new forms of political organization and social relations of peoples and their cultures developed - the civilization of Hellenism.

DNA analysis of ancient amphoras revealed to scientists that Greek sailors traded a fairly wide range of products, and not just wine, as many historians assumed. The evidence was published in the Archaeological Journal. Evidence was extracted from nine amphoras found on shipwrecked ships.

The analysis of the extracted DNA material will help scientists, by comparing different periods of time, to find out the complexity of the Mediterranean trade in the ancient world. Archaeologist Brendan Foley of the Oceanographic Institute (WHOI) in Massachusetts and geneticist Maria Hansson of the University of Lund, Sweden, have recovered DNA from nine amphorae from ships that sank in the Mediterranean from the fifth to the third centuries BC.

The researchers found that grape DNA is found in only five of the nine amphoras, and olive DNA, possibly due to olive oil, in six of them. Other "hits" were DNA from legumes, ginger, walnut and juniper, and even herbs such as mint, thyme and oregano.

The first analysis with an amphora donated by Jacques-Yves Cousteau was made back in the 1950s, but did not give any results. The Greek authorities allowed to study the amphoras in the storerooms, and the first results were obtained, since the amphorae were stored in the dark and the DNA was not exposed to the damaging effects of sunlight.

The range of components found in each amphora suggests that the amphoras were widely reused and that they may have contained more complex foods than previously thought, as well as herbal spices and preservatives.

Marc Lawal, an expert on ancient Mediterranean trade at the University of Manitoba in Winnipeg, says historians have been quick to speculate about how the amphoras were used. All former archaeological evidence and written sources have been confirmed. Indeed, in those ancient times the main trade items were wine, oil and honey, as well as fruits, fish, meat and resins.

He says the DNA approach holds "great promise in terms of content analysis of amphora from archaeologically documented shipwrecks" where DNA data can be combined with other sources of information about the vessel and its contents.

By this plan, indeed the analysis of samples taken in third-century BC amphorae found near Kyrenia, Cyprus could reveal a picture of how ancient trade developed over time, pinpointing exactly when different cultures were cultivated.

Translation of the text by A. Petrovich