Processes in modern science. Historical Science

Geography is a science that originated in antiquity. For many centuries it has been describing the nature, population and economy of various regions and the Earth as a whole. Now it is no longer the only science, but a whole system of natural and social sciences. All of them, taken together, deeply investigate the structure of the geographic shell of our planet, its constituent components, study the reasons for the development of certain natural phenomena and processes, analyze socio-economic and ecological problems etc. The system of geographical sciences consists of independent sciences, scientific disciplines and branch sciences.

To independent sciences belong physical geography, socially economical geography, history of geography, cartography. Physical geography studies the nature of the Earth's surface and its various natural complexes... Socio-economic geography studies the population, its economic activity, patterns of production location. Both of these sciences are the main branches of geography. The history of geography studies the development of theoretical thought, the history of geographical research and discoveries, describes the stages of the emergence and formation of all geographical sciences. Cartography - the science of geographical maps, methods and processes of their creation and use. Note that cartography has a special place in geography, because it serves not only geographical sciences, but also sciences and industries are quite far from it. National economy- maps are widely used, for example, in military affairs, aviation, shipping, and administrative institutions.

As part of physical geography, the main scientific disciplines are geography, regional physical geography and landscape science. Each of them has its own subject of study. So, geography studies geographic envelope Earth as an integral system, its structure, structure, dynamics, development and changes under the influence of economic activity. Regional physical geography studies the nature of various regions of the Earth, including individual continents, oceans, and countries. An important part of modern physical geography is landscape science, which studies natural and transformed (anthropogenic) landscapes and their components.

Socio-economic geography also consists of three main disciplines. These are the economic and social geography of the world, regional economic and social geography and regional geography. Each of these sciences has its own subject of research. Thus, the economic and social geography of the world studies the foundations of the geography of world production, investigates the structure, location and development of the economy of individual countries as a whole and its main branches, analyzes the quantitative and qualitative state of the population, formulates theoretical questions and reveals the laws of development of research subjects. Regional economic and social geography studies the economy of countries and economic regions (industrial-territorial complexes) and the relationship between them. Geography gives general characteristics nature and economy of individual states or large territories... A component of regional studies is local history, the subject of which is small territories - their nature, economy, history, everyday life, etc.

The science of nature conservation has crystallized in physical and economic geography and therefore combines issues of nature and economics. This teaching about natural resources and their rational use. The task of this science is to ensure the efficient use of natural resources, their expanded reproduction, the preservation of valuable and endangered species of plants and animals, and unique landscapes.

Certain branch sciences are also actively involved in environmental protection. They separated from geography by accumulation a large number scientific knowledge about the Earth and in connection with the need for a deep study of various components of nature and sectors of the economy, as well as the laws of development of nature and society. First, let us name the branch sciences that have emerged from general physical geography. Geomorphology is the science of the relief of the Earth, the origin and patterns of development of its forms. Oceanology studies physical, chemical, geological and biological processes and phenomena in the World Ocean, the ocean floor, spatial differentiation of waters and the influence of these factors on the formation of the planet's nature. Essentially hydrology studies water bodies land: rivers, lakes, swamps, underground waters, glaciers. Soil geography studies the patterns of soil distribution on earth surface... Biogeography studies the patterns of geographical distribution and distribution of plants, animals and their groups on the planet, as well as the nature, history of the formation of the fauna and flora of individual territories.

Socio-economic geography has also given rise to several distinct industrial sciences. Each of them explores separate objects. The geography of the population studies the territorial patterns of the formation, placement and development of the population in a certain socio-economic and geographical environment, social geography - the features and patterns of the territorial organization of society in different countries, districts, localities, natural areas... Geography and Economics of Natural Resources studies natural resources and implements economic assessment them in a country, region, district or any other specific area. The geography of industry examines the territorial structure of industrial production, objective patterns and features of the development of industry in general and by individual groups industries within territorial systems of different levels. The subject of study of geography Agriculture is an agrarian-territorial complex different types and regions, geography of transport - conditions, factors and patterns of formation, functioning and territorial organization of transport systems as a means of communication between territorial-production complexes.

Ecology in the broadest sense is a science that studies the relationship between living organisms and their habitat. Now very great importance acquire complex studies of the interaction of nature and society in order to justify rational use natural resources and preservation of favorable conditions for life on our planet.

The described system of geographical sciences does not cover all its branches. In particular, it does not mention such sciences as medical, military and political geography, paleogeography, glaciology, permafrost, geoecology and some others. And although the classification of the modern division of geography is not complete, it shows that all geographical sciences are united by a close relationship between the objects under study and a common ultimate goal, which consists in a comprehensive study of nature, population and economy and in determining the nature of the interaction between human society and the environment. ...

CLASSIFICATION OF GEOGRAPHICAL DISCIPLINES

During historical development geography has become complex system sciences. According to most researchers, this “system within its boundaries consists of natural-geographical and socio-geographical sciences, which study the geographic shell of the Earth, natural and socio-economic territorial systems (geosystems) and their elements.

An essential point in understanding the structure of geography, the processes of integration and differentiation of geographical knowledge is the idea that the content of science is always broader than the content of the object it investigates, since science does not include; only knowledge about this object, but also knowledge about its possible connections with objects of other sciences. Therefore, in the structure of geographical science, scientific disciplines are formed and developed that lie at the junction of geography with other natural and humanitarian sciences.

Before directly considering the classification, taxonomy and structure of geographical disciplines, let us return to the already mentioned the question of the unity of geography.

There are three general options-models for solving this issue: the model of a unified geography, two geographies, and a system of geographical sciences. Fans of the first trend admit that environment, nature has changed so much under the influence of human activity that, in essence, we have cultural landscapes in front of us - the result of the combined action of natural and anthropogenic factors... Such landscapes and others geographic objects can be studied a lot only from the standpoint of recognizing their integrity, but by a single science. For this, it is necessary, first of all, to bring the unity of the subject of study of physical geography and socio-economic geography. To do this, you need to find those general properties or the features on the basis of which such an object is formed. Some geographers have such signs of natural and built environment, according to M.D. Pistun (1994), they call ecological-spatial relations, mathematization, the transition to an abstract (philosophical) level of generalizations, and the like.

One of the ways to solve this problem is suggested by Yu. T. Tyutyunnik (1993). He quotes V. Merest: " Science, which forms the core of the geographical sciences, can only become a science, the object of study of which is broader than the object of study of any particular geographical science and practically covers the objects of all separate sciences that are included in the system of geography"Tyutyunnik points to such an object. This is a fundamental geographical category - landscape (it should be noted that L. Berg was the first to point this out).

Tyutyunnik notes that o geography is the science of the territorial organization of the macrocosm, which is studied at the landscape level (or the level of objects that have the property of emergence relative to their component parts) and at the level of studying the territorial organization of the most landscape components. Since a person and products of his economic activity, the researcher proves "... full-fledged components of the landscape, and the processes that are caused by them and are associated with them are intra-landscape processes, then socio-economic geography is included in the category of sectoral physical and geographical disciplines. The unity of geography is realized at the first - landscape studies - level of studying the territorial organization macrocosm ". At the same time, Tyutyunnik calls on geographers-economists to rethink the concept of "physical geography", considering the science he designated as nature in the broad sense of the word.

The classification schemes of the system of geographical sciences existing today oppose one or another solution to the question of the unity of their subject.

S. V. Kalesnik, offering his own classification, emphasizes that "... any system of sciences is formed historically and arises in the order of differentiation of a broader discipline, which was engaged in the study of a complex object, which includes a combination of simpler objects"... He distinguishes 4 groups in the system of geographical sciences:

1) Natural and geographical sciences, or physical and geographical sciences proper. This group includes geomorphology, climatology, oceanology (including oceanography), land hydrology, glaciology, permafrost science, soil science with soil geography, biogeography, general geography; regional physical geography, or landscape science; paleogeography and phenology (teaching about the seasonal rhythm of landscapes);

2) Social Geographical Sciences- history of geography and individual geographical disciplines, toponymy and economic geography with all its subsections;

3) Cartography- cartography, mathematical cartography, cartometry, drawing up and editing maps, design and publication of maps;

4) United Geographic Disciplines... These include sciences that

They use material from natural and social geographic sciences and cartography, but they also use information from other areas of knowledge for their purposes. Some of them are part of their divisions and in the systems of other sciences. This is primarily regional geography, medical geography, military geography, and so on.

Developing the classification scheme for geographical sciences, S.V. Kalesnik, M.D. Pistun (1994) complements her with groups engineering and geographical sciences and theoretical geography.

He also gives the structure of social and geographical disciplines, among which he distinguishes analytical (industry), synthetic and methodical. At the same time, social geography is understood as the science of territorial organization and comprehensively proportional development of human activity.

A.N. Marynich (1993) emphasizes that geography is a system of sciences and consists of three cycles: natural-geographical, socio-economic and cartographic, the first two of which integral and industrial sciences. Separately highlighted interdisciplinary geographical sciences.

According to V.M. Gokhman (1994) all geographical science consists of five large blocks: 1) geography itself, which studies integral geosystems; 2) partial (incomplete) geographical disciplines, which study subsystems with both natural and social components (both blocks belong to natural and social sciences); 3) physical geography(natural Science); 4) geography, which studies social development (socio-geographical science); 5) theoretical geography, which examines common features all objects studied by geography (social science).

According to V.S.Zhekulin (1989), the entire system of geographical science covers natural science, socio-economic and natural-social blocks and "cross-cutting" science. The natural science block is represented by theoretical and applied physical and geographical sciences from general physical geography to soil science. Similarly, along with the general socio-economic geography, the socio-economic block includes industrial sciences.

Geoecology belongs to the sciences of the natural-social block, historical geography, medical and recreational geography, resource study, the doctrine of natural and economic regions and some others. The same sciences, concepts, methods and techniques of which permeate the entire system of geographical sciences, constitute a block of "cross-cutting" disciplines. First of all, it is cartography, which provides all geographic sciences with means of communication with each other - geographical maps... Here V.S.Zhekulin includes history of geography and metageography- a science that studies processes internal development geographical science, its place in common system sciences, the main processes of formation and the internal structure of geography, modern tasks, relationships and prospects for the development of individual geographical sciences and their entire system as a whole.

The classification of the geographical sciences, like science in general, makes it possible to learn more deeply their theoretical basis, as well as to identify and describe the real mechanisms of the synthesis of these sciences. Let's look at the example of physical geography.

A. F. Plakhotnik (1994) places in the center of the system of sciences called " physical geography" sciences about physical and geographical complexes - landscape science and general geography (general physical geography). On the periphery of the scheme, there are sectoral physical and geographical sciences, which he calls component physical and geographical sciences (KFGN), since the subject of study of each of them is the corresponding component of the nature of the geographic shell of the Earth or one of its natural subsections (geocomplexes, geosystems, natural territorial complexes of that or other taxonomic rank). At the same time, we note that not all geographers classify some KFGN as geographic sciences (an example is geomorphology, which has been successfully applied by researchers to both geographic and geological sciences, not to mention lithology or sedimentology, which have never figured among geographic ones) ...

The dialectical unity of complex and component, regional and local, finally, phylo- and ontogenesis determines mutual complementarity and close relationships in a single process of two-level study of the object of physical geography by landscape science, general geography and paleogeography, on the one hand, and the totality of KFGN, on the other. Thus, physical geography studies its object at the component and complex level of organization simultaneously in the regional and typological direction... Deepening the analysis of the subject of physical geography, one can see that when using the main method of the geographer - spatial-comparative - it becomes possible to divide the subject of physical geography into separate "sides" that are the subject of research of the corresponding scientific directions as part of each of the KFGN, as well as landscape studies. First of all, this concerns the regional and typological direction in modern physical geography.

The division of geographical sciences into separate disciplines can occur according to the principle of displaying the structural elements of its subject and according to the degree of their content. By the latest stand out formalized, formal and substantive levels of geographic knowledge... Each of these levels has its own specific subject research, and complete knowledge of the subject of the entire system of geographical sciences is possible only through the results of research at all three levels.

Formal level of geography determine the disciplines, in the methodological apparatus of which the main role is assigned to the concept of space. However, this is not an abstract space, divorced from any content, but a space of qualitatively defined geographical phenomena that make up the content of these disciplines.

The third level of meaningfulness of geographical knowledge unites disciplines that rely in their research on the dynamic geometric concept of geography, which abstracts from the subject content, studies the spatio-temporal structures of geographical phenomena and processes in their abstract form (an example is the morphodynamic concept of geomorphology by A.N. Lastochkin).

The basic principle of the internal division of geography, according to the philosopher V.S.Lyamin (1978), should be "... dividing it either into sciences that study the geographic form of motion, or into geographic sciences about the interaction of the geographic form of motion with other forms of motion of matter - geological, biological, social and etc. ". According to this principle, the following groups are distinguished in the system of geographical sciences:

1. General physical geography (z Gemology), which studies the essence of the geographic form of the movement of matter and the geographic envelope as a whole.

2... Climatology, land hydrology, glaciology and geocryology, oceanology- these sciences study the main elements of the geographic form of movement in interaction, as well as the regularity of the structure and development of individual elements of the hydro- and troposphere.

3. Biogeography, soil geography, geomorphology, economic geography and the like. These sciences study the interaction of the geographic form of movement with various forms movement of matter.

4. Landscape and regional studies... They study special geographic complex systems in which elements of various forms of motion of matter are closely intertwined with each other.

In that case, the core of the entire system of geographic sciences, "unified geography" is physical geography as the main geographic science... The laws of physical geography as present in all phenomena that are investigated by different geographical sciences.

The classification of the system of geographical sciences on the basis of the activity concept (N.K. Mukitanov, 1984) is of great methodological importance. The theoretical principle of such systematization is the principle of development, according to which the process of movement from a general basis to a particular one, and from it to a single one is reproduced in logical forms. The essence of the activity concept lies in the understanding of the geographic environment as a natural and social phenomenon that arose as a result of the inclusion natural environment into social activities. The core of geographical knowledge, from this point of view, is the theory of interaction between society and the natural environment.

It is the theory of interaction between society and nature, together with the theory of the geographic environment, that are designed to reveal the essence and forms of this interaction, the essence of the geographic environment, the relationship between natural and social in it.

Verification work No. 1

option 1

Which of the following Earth sciences studies the origin and development of the Earth as a celestial body?

1) biology; 3) astronomy;

2) geography 4) geology.

1) islands; 3) celestial bodies;

2) animals; 4) substances.

Which of the listed objects belongs to natural objects?

1) seaport; 3) highway;

2) water tower; 4) lake.

Science studies the structure of the Earth and the history of its development, the composition crust and placement of minerals. The main object of her research is rocks.

Geography as a science originated in Ancient Greece... The main sources of geographical information in those days were the stories of sailors and travelers. Over time, three directions have developed in the development of geography: geography - the description of processes and natural phenomena; regional studies - description of territories and peoples; mathematical geography - determining the size of the earth and creating maps. The ancient Greek scientist Eratosthenes calculated the length of the equator and the dimensions of the Earth more than 2,200 years ago. He also compiled the oldest surviving map. Name the direction of geography in which Eratosthenes conducted his research.

Which sailor was in charge of the first voyage around the world?

1) Afanasy Nikitin; 3) Fernand Magellan;

2) Christopher Columbus; 4) James Cook.

Which of geographical discoveries belongs to the expedition of Christopher Columbus:

1) the discovery of a new part of the world; 3) the study of China;

2) the opening of the sea route to India; 4) the discovery of Antarctica.

On which of the listed seas did Afanasy Nikitin not "walk"

1) Caspian; 3) Mediterranean;

2) Arabian; 4) Black.

Name at least three reasons supporting the validity of the name of the era of the Great Geographical Discoveries.

Verification work No. 1

option 2

Which of the following earth sciences studies the structure of our planet and the history of its development?

1) astronomy; 2) physics; 3) biology; 4) geology.

Which of the following objects is studied by geography?

1) celestial bodies; 3) the relationship of living organisms;

2) plants; 4) minerals.

Which of the listed objects is a man-made object?

1) mountain; 3) swamp;

2) pipeline; 4) ravine.

Define earth science by short description.

The science of wildlife. Studies the life of living organisms, their relationship with each other and with inanimate nature.

Geography as a science originated in Ancient Greece. Over time, three directions have developed in the development of geography: geography - the description of processes and natural phenomena; regional studies - description of territories and peoples; mathematical geography - determining the size of the earth and creating maps. The ancient Greek scientist Eratosthenes owns the first scientific presentation of geography: he calculated the length of the equator and the dimensions of the Earth, made the oldest of the maps that have come down to us. Another ancient scientist - Strabo - compiled a 17-volume work "Geography" - the first geographical description countries of Africa, Europe, Asia. Which of the ancient scholars mentioned in the text was engaged in regional studies?

Which seafarer discovered the New World in search of a new sea route to India?

1) Christopher Columbus; 3) Marco Polo;

2) Vasco da Gama; 4) Afanasy Nikitin.

Which of the geographical discoveries belongs to the Vasco da Gama expedition:

1) the discovery of Antarctica; 3) opening the way to India around Africa;

2) the first trip around the world; 4) the discovery of a new part of the world.

Which of the oceans was not crossed by the ships of the first round-the-world expedition?

1) Northern Arctic; 3) Atlantic;

2) Quiet; 4) Indian.

Name at least three meanings of the first circumnavigation for the development of geography.

A complex of the humanities studying the history of mankind.
Its object (the past of humanity in all its diversity) is inaccessible for direct perception by the researcher. This is the main difference between historical science and natural sciences, the object of which is always available for observation, is stable and independent of the researcher. The historian can obtain scientific (i.e. reliable and systematized) knowledge about the past only through special research operations with historical sources.
A historical source is any product of human culture that contains information about the past of humanity. As a result of a person's conscious activity, the historical source reflects the intention, skills and abilities of its creator. At the same time, the source becomes such only after a specialist historian turns to it.
Stages of a historian's work: choosing a research topic; search and determination of the range of sources suitable for solving the problem (heuristic); authentication of found sources ( external criticism); comparison of information within a complex of sources and verification of its reliability (internal criticism); analysis of information contained in historical sources using the methods of historical science (interpretation of facts, synthesis); research writing (statement of results).

Historical Science... Trouble Hon.

The constituent parts (branches) of historical science are source studies (theory of using historical sources), historiography (history of historical science).
Special historical disciplines include archeology (studies the past by material remains activities of people) and ethnography (studies the origin, settlement, life and culture of various peoples).
Historical science uses the methods of auxiliary historical disciplines. These include archeography (collection, study and publication of written sources), archival science (history of archives, methods of searching for archival documents), genealogy (history of clans and families), heraldry (study of coats of arms and insignia), diplomacy (study of historical acts), historical geography (geography a certain territory in the past), historical metrology (units of measurement in the past), codicology (history of handwritten books), numismatics (history of coins and money circulation), paleography (methods of dating written monuments), papyrology (study of documents on papyrus), sphragistics (history of seals) , chronology (history of the calendar in different nations), filigranology (dating documents on paper), epigraphy (the study of inscriptions on hard surfaces). When working with written sources, historians turn to the methods of an auxiliary philological discipline - textual criticism (studying the history of a text, identifying later insertions, establishing authorship).

Historical science. Sima Tsan.

Historical science originated in the 5th century. BC NS. in Ancient Greece. Its roots lie in Ionian philosophy (from the 6th century BC), which asserted that the Universe as a whole is knowable and a human researcher can discover its universal laws. Herodotus is considered the "father of history". Significant ancient historians: the Greeks Thucydides (5th century BC), Xenophon (5-4th centuries BC), Polybius (2nd century BC), Plutarch (1-2 centuries BC). AD); Romans Sallust, Varro (both - 1st century BC), Libya Titus, Tacitus, Suetonius (1-2 centuries BC).
Ancient historians preferred to describe events that occurred during their lifetime or shortly before them, therefore they relied on their own impressions and eyewitness accounts. Historical writings of predecessors were used to describe earlier events. The documents served only as an auxiliary source of information. War, politics, legislative activity and biographies of political leaders were considered worthy of attention. Ancient historians are also characterized by a special interest in religion, customs neighboring peoples, the origin of names, titles. The dominant concept of the historical process was the cyclical theory.
In the 4-15th centuries. Christianity exerted a decisive influence on historians, and the main focus was on the history of the Church. The greatest contributions were made by Eusebius of Caesarea (3-4 centuries), Paul Orosius, Saint Augustine the Blessed (both 4-5 centuries), Jordan, Bede the Venerable, Paul the Deacon (both 8th centuries), Eingard (8-9 centuries) ... The importance of written sources in historical research has grown. A linear concept of history prevailed (from the Creation of the world to The last judgment) and providentialism. The traditions of ancient historical thought were continued in the works of Byzantine authors: Procopius of Caesarea (6th century), Constantine Porphyrogenitus (10th century), Michael Psellus (11th century) and George the Acropolis (13th century).
Historical science has also developed within the framework of other civilizations. In China, where the first historical writings date back to the 3rd century. BC e., it was believed that history should serve as a guide for politicians... The most famous Chinese historians are Sima Qian (2nd - 1st centuries BC), Liu Zhiji (661-721) and Sima Guang (1019-86). Ibn Khaldun (1332-1406) is considered the largest Islamic historian.
During the Renaissance, European historians re-emerged an interest in political history: the works of L. Bruni (1374-1444), N. Machiavelli (1469-1527) and others. The works of Lorenzo Balla (1407-57) laid the foundations for textual criticism of the medieval document. In the 16th century. in the face of tough polemics between Catholics and Protestants (see Art. Reformation) obligatory for scientific papers accurate references to sources and their abundant citation became.
In the 16-17 centuries. large-scale publications of new sources were carried out, methods of their criticism were developed. Thus, the founder of diplomacy and paleography J. Mabilion (1632-1707) formulated general rules for determining the authenticity of medieval documents and insisted on a comprehensive analysis of all their features to verify their identity.

Historical science. E. Gibbon.

In the 18th century. Philosophy set the tone for the development of historical science. Educational philosophers viewed history as a single universal process based on universal laws. An interest arose in the history of non-European civilizations. The largest representative of the so-called. philosophical historiography was E. Gibbon (1737-94). The philosopher and educator I. G. Herder (1744-1803) believed that the development of society is a natural result of the combined action of its national characteristics, natural conditions and cultural traditions... The spirit of the people is expressed in art and folk poetry. Herder considered it possible to consider them only in development (he formulated the principle of historicism).
In the 19th century. history turns into an independent scientific discipline with its own object and research methods. The latter are largely based on the achievements of him. classical philosophy: the teachings of I. Kant (1724-1804) and G. Hegel (1770-1831). Written sources have firmly taken the place of the main materials for the historian. The School of Charters (France, since 1821) became the leading institute for teaching methods of researching medieval documents. Theoretical basis modern historical science laid down in the works of L. Ranke (1795-1886). He was convinced that the truth is contained in archival materials, insisted on the objectivity of the historian and made a scrupulous study of sources the basis research work historian.
The formation of methods of working with historical sources is directly related to positivism. The positivists believed that historical science should answer only the question of how (and not why) events occur. Progress is an immutable law social development... A historian should only professionally extract reliable facts from sources and, systematizing them, describe the processes under study. An introduction to the study of history by S. Langlois and S. Senobos (1898) is considered a classic work containing an exhaustive review of the methods of historical science.
To the greatest historians of the 19th century. include F. Guizot (1787-1874, one of the predecessors of the class theory of historical development), J. Michelet (1798-1874), F. de Coulanges (1830-89), S.R. Gardiner (1827-1902), T. Mommsen (1817-1903), V. Dilthey (1833-1911), F. Meinecke (1862-1954) and others.
In the 19th century. the formation of special historical disciplines took place. The founder of Egyptology J. Champollion (1790-1832) developed the basic principles of deciphering hieroglyphic writing. Archaeologist G. Schliemann (1822-90) found Homeric Troy, conducted successful excavations in Mycenae, Orchomenos and Tiryns. Schliemann was one of the founders of the theory of stratigraphy (a comparative study of cultural layers). His research was continued by W. Derpfeld (1853-1940) and A. Evans (1851-1941). The latter opened the Palace of Knossos in Crete and described in detail the Minoan culture of 3-2 thousand BC. NS.
In the 20th century. the specialization of historians is increasing (concentration on occupying a strictly limited area of ​​science). The scope of research is expanding geographically (extending to all civilizations) and chronologically (from primitive to post-industrial society). These processes took place against the background of the spread and competition of different philosophical teachings(historical materialism, neo-Kantianism, phenomenology, philosophy of life, structuralism, neopositivism, existentialism, etc.), which became the methodological basis of historical research.
The adherents of historical materialism (founders K. Marx, F. Engels, V. I. Lenin) believed that the material conditions of life determine the worldview of a person and social groups, and considered history as a single process for any civilization of the natural change of socio-economic formations (formational theory of the historical process).

Historical science. F. Guizot.

The neo-Kantians saw in history the science of the spirit, concerned with individual phenomena. Sociologist and historian M. Weber (1864-1920) believed that scientists first create abstract mental constructions of the historical process (the so-called ideal types: capitalism, Christianity, etc.), and then fill them with empirical material.
The representative of the philosophy of life O. Spengler (1880-1936) denied the existence of a single common human culture and human progress: each culture is a separate organism that expresses the soul of the people. In world history, Spengler consisted of 8 cultures. Culture is born, develops and dies, turning into a civilization. The transition from culture to civilization means the termination of the creative process and the ossification of all forms of social life.
On the basis of this teaching, A. D. Toynbee (1889-1975) created a civilizational theory of the historical process. There is no single history of mankind. There are scattered stories of closed civilizations, each of which dies over time. The scientist counted 13 civilizations that managed to fully reveal their potential. Social processes consistently occurring in civilizations are analogous to each other and therefore available for comparative study on the basis of empirical laws. The progress of humanity lies in its spiritual improvement, in the desire to create a single syncretic religion.
Civilizational theory dominates in the modern. historical science. One of the most rapidly developing areas is historical comparative studies (comparison of different civilizations). A prominent representative of this trend, Sh. N. Eisenstadt (born in 1923) is known for his works on the theory of modernization, civilization, and revolution.
In the 1920s. structuralism took shape - a direction in humanitarian knowledge, considering culture as a set of sign systems (language, science, art, mythology, fashion, advertising). Structuralism flourished in the 1960s. (K. Levi-Strauss, M. Foucault, R. Barthes, J. Derrida, L. Goldman), special successes were achieved in the study of the history of primitive society, ethnography, and the history of culture.
In 1929, the first issue of the journal "Annals of Economic and Social History" (now "Annals. History, Social Sciences") was published, the founders and editors of which were M. Blok (1886-1944) and L. Febvre (1878-1956), and in 1956-69. - F. Braudel (1902-85). The journal united a group of scientists around itself (the "Annals" school). Adherents of this trend, taking different philosophical positions, believe that the subject of historical science is the life of society in all (without exception) its manifestations; one should mainly address mass phenomena.
Important observations were made, for example, in such an area as the influence of the natural environment on social processes. The founders of the Annals believed that it was necessary to overcome the shortcomings of the narrow specialization of researchers, to return to the formulation of problems of a general nature (the concept of “ global history»), To make wider use of the methods of other sciences. From the beginning. 1970s the new generation of the "Annals" school (E. Leroy Ladurie, J. Le Goff, F. Furet, P. Chonu, M. Ferrot, K. Klapisch, A. Fardi and others) returned to more local problems.
Based on the principles of complex historical analysis developed by F. Braudel, I. Wallerstein (born in 1930) created a world-system theory of the historical process. History is the development of regional world-systems, which are a combination of world-economies (systems of international relations based on trade) and world-empires (groups of countries united politically, not economically). The development of the world-economies is subject to the laws of the cyclical theory of Rus. economist N. D. Kondratyev (1892-1938). After a long competition, the Western European world-economy has triumphed over all others, becoming the only world-system. Wallerstein's theory explains well the process of globalization. In the 2nd floor. 20th century the line between the historical and the so-called. social sciences(sociology, psychology, anthropology, economics) has practically disappeared, interdisciplinary research has become widespread. Counterfactual (virtual) history, which studies alternatives, has become a new direction of historical science. historical events and socio-economic processes (R. Vogel, N. Ferguson). The main technique of counterfactual modeling is the reconstruction of a certain process taking place under different conditions changed by the researcher (how the US economy would develop in the 19th century if railways had not become widespread, etc.).

"The history and significance of geographical discoveries" - The route of the journey of the great navigator. Which polar explorer's route is shown on the map. Robert Peary. The sphericity of the Earth. Great navigator. Portuguese navigator. Roald Amundsen. Globe maps. Englishman. Faddey Faddeevich Bellingshausen. Routes of four expeditions. History of geographical discoveries. Dutch navigator. The first trip around the world. Australia is an independent continent.

"City of Biysk" - Biysk fortress - early June 1718 .. City life. A fortress is a city. My city. Solving addition and subtraction problems natural numbers... Accession of the upper reaches of the Ob to Russia. How our hometown began. Lesson objectives. Biysk fortress in figures and facts. Hometown. The length of the walls of the prison.

"St. Basil's Cathedral" - Why St. Basil's Cathedral? Where is the temple? Built by order of 25-year-old Ivan the Terrible. St. Basil's Cathedral. In memory of the capture of Kazan and the victory over the Kazan Khanate. Previously it was thought that the cathedral was built by Italians. There the temple, towering as a mountain, Stands, without shaking off the snow load ... Legend associated with the cathedral. What did Napoleon want to do with the cathedral and what saved the temple? In the old days, the Intercession Cathedral was red and white, and the domes were golden.

"Port of Piraeus" - Tax on migrants. Contributions from allied states. Goods imported to Greece. Sea. Coins in Ancient Greece. Port of Piraeus. Slave markets. Citizens. Name main port Athenian state. Athens. Port of Piraeus today. Export. Trading partners of Ancient Greece. Trade duties. Concepts. Sources of Athens' enrichment. Development impetus. In the harbors of the Athens port of Piraeus. Results of the wars with the Persians for Athens. The use of slave labor.

"Our Land" - Geographers. The first cosmonauts. The reasons for the uniqueness and uniqueness of the Earth. Fill the table. Satellites. Astronomers. Writers and poets. Our Earth. The reasons for the uniqueness. The uniqueness and uniqueness of the Earth. Reportage. Planet.

"Lesson" Scale "" - Construct a cane in the form of a line. The scale may vary. Construct a rectangle. Segments. Landscape. Construct 2 lines. Textbook. Solution. Tasks from the beauty queen. ladybug... Scale. Even number. Pinocchio stretched. Elephant growth. Verbal counting.