Historical geography as a science. Concept, components. Historical geography

Historical geography- It is a historical discipline that studies history through the "prism" of geography; it is also the geography of a territory at a certain historical stage of its development. The most difficult part of the task of historical geography is to show the economic geography of the studied territory - to establish the level of development of the productive forces, their location.

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In a broad sense, historical geography is a section of history that aims to study a geographical area and its population. In a narrow sense, she studies the topographic side of events and phenomena: "defining the boundaries of the state and its regions, populated areas, communication routes, etc."

The sources for Russian historical geography are:

• historical acts (spiritual wills of the grand dukes, charter letters, boundary documents, etc.)
• scribal, sentinel, census, revision books
• Records of foreign travelers: Herberstein (Notes about Muscovy), Fletcher (), Olearius (Description of the journey of the Holstein embassy to Muscovy and Persia), Pavel Allepsky (in 1654), Meyerberg (in 1661), Reitenfels (Legends to the Most Serene Duke Tuscan Kozma the Third about Muscovy)
• archeology, philology and geography.

At the moment, there are 8 sectors of historical geography:

1. historical physical geography (historical geography) - the most conservative branch, studies landscape changes;
2. historical political geography - studies changes in the political map, state system, routes of conquest campaigns;
3. historical geography of the population - studies the ethnographic and geographical features of the distribution of the population in the territories;
4. historical social geography - studies the relationship of society, the change of social strata;
5. historical cultural geography - studies spiritual and material culture;
6. historical geography of interaction between society and nature - direct (human influence on nature) and reverse (nature on human);
7. historical economic geography - studies the development of production, industrial revolutions;
8. historical and geographical regional studies.

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Literature

• A. A. Spitsyn Russian historical geography: a training course. - Petrograd: Type. Ya.Bashmakov and Co., 1917. - 68 p.
• Yatsunsky V.K. Historical geography: The history of its origin and development in the XIV-XVIII centuries .. - Moscow: Publishing house of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, 1955. - 336 p. - 4,000 copies.
• Gumilyov L.N.// Bulletin of Leningrad University. No. 18, no. 3. - L., 1965 .-- S. 112-120.
• Historical geography of Russia: XII - early XX centuries. Collection of articles for the 70th anniversary of prof. L. G. Beskrovnogo / Otv. ed. acad. A. L. Narochnitsky. - M .: Nauka, 1975 .-- 348 p. - 5 550 copies
• Zhekulin V.S. Historical Geography: Subject and Methods. - L.: Nauka, 1982 .-- 224 p.
• Maksakovsky V.P. Historical Geography of the World: Textbook: Recommended by the Ministry of General and Professional Education of the Russian Federation for students of higher educational institutions / Ed. E. M. Goncharova, T. V. Zinicheva. - M .: Ekopros, 1999 .-- 584 p. - ISBN 5-88621-051-2.
• Historical geography of Russia IX - early XX centuries .: Territory. Population. Economy: essays / Ya. E. Vodarsky, V. M. Kabuzan, A. V. Demkin, O. I. Eliseeva, E. G. Istomin, O. A. Shvatchenko; Resp. ed. K. A. Averyanov. - M .:, 2013 .-- 304, p. - 300 copies. - ISBN 978-5-8055-0238-6.

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Excerpt from Historical Geography

He is needed for the place that awaits him, and therefore, almost independently of his will and despite his indecision, lack of a plan, for all the mistakes he makes, he is drawn into a conspiracy aimed at seizing power, and the conspiracy is crowned with success ...
He is pushed into the meeting of the rulers. Frightened, he wants to run, considering himself lost; pretends to faint; says meaningless things that should have ruined him. But the rulers of France, formerly quick-witted and proud, now, feeling that their role has been played, are even more embarrassed than he, they say the wrong words that they should have said in order to hold on to power and destroy him.
Chance, millions of accidents give him power, and all people, as if by agreement, contribute to the establishment of this power. Accidents make the characters of the then rulers of France obedient to him; coincidences make the character of Paul I, who recognizes his authority; chance makes a conspiracy against him, not only does not harm him, but asserts his power. Chance sends Engiensky into his hands and inadvertently forces him to kill, thereby, stronger than all other means, convincing the crowd that he has the right, since he has power. Chance makes that he strains all his forces on an expedition to England, which, obviously, would have ruined him, and never fulfills this intention, but inadvertently attacks Mac with the Austrians, who surrender without a fight. Chance and genius give him victory at Austerlitz, and by chance all people, not only the French, but all of Europe, with the exception of England, which will not take part in the events that will take place, all people, despite the former horror and disgust at his crimes, now they recognize him as his power, the name he gave himself, and his ideal of greatness and glory, which seems to be all something beautiful and reasonable.
As if trying on and preparing for the upcoming movement, the forces of the west several times in 1805 m, 6 m, 7 m, 9 m year tend to the east, stronger and growing. In 1811, a group of people that had developed in France merged into one huge group with the middle nations. Together with the growing group of people, the power of justification of the person at the head of the movement develops further. In the ten-year preparatory period of time preceding the great movement, this man is brought together with all the crowned faces of Europe. The exposed rulers of the world cannot oppose the Napoleonic ideal of glory and greatness, which has no meaning, any rational ideal. One before the other, they strive to show him their insignificance. The King of Prussia sends his wife to beg the favor of a great man; the emperor of Austria considers it a mercy that this man receives the daughter of the Caesars in his bed; the pope, the guardian of the sanctity of nations, serves as his religion for the exaltation of a great man. Not so much Napoleon himself prepares himself for the performance of his role, as everything around him prepares him to take on all the responsibility of what is happening and has to be done. There is no deed, no evil deed or petty deception that he would have committed and which would not immediately be reflected in the lips of those around him in the form of a great deed. The best holiday the Germans can think of for him is the celebration of Jena and Auerstet. Not only he is great, but his ancestors, his brothers, his stepsons, sons-in-law are great. Everything is done in order to deprive him of the last power of reason and prepare him for his terrible role. And when he is ready, the forces are ready.
The invasion is heading eastward, reaching its ultimate goal - Moscow. The capital is taken; the Russian army is more destroyed than the enemy troops have ever been destroyed in previous wars from Austerlitz to Wagram. But suddenly, instead of those accidents and genius that have so consistently led him so far with an uninterrupted series of successes to his intended goal, there are an innumerable number of reverse accidents, from a cold in Borodino to frost and a spark that ignited Moscow; and instead of genius are stupidity and meanness, which have no examples.
The invasion runs, comes back, runs again, and all the accidents are now not for, but against it.
There is a counter-movement from east to west with remarkable similarity to the previous movement from west to east. The same attempts to move from east to west in 1805 - 1807 - 1809 preceded the great movement; the same clutch and group of huge sizes; the same pestering of the middle peoples to the movement; the same hesitation in the middle of the path and the same speed as you approach the goal.
Paris - the ultimate goal has been achieved. Napoleonic government and troops are destroyed. Napoleon himself no longer makes sense; all his actions are obviously pitiful and disgusting; but again an inexplicable accident occurs: the allies hate Napoleon, in whom they see the cause of their troubles; devoid of strength and power, exposed in villainy and deceit, he should have appeared to them as he seemed to them ten years ago and a year after - a robber outside the law. But by some strange coincidence, no one sees this. His role is not over yet. A man who, ten years ago and a year after, was considered an outlaw robber, is sent in two days of moving from France to an island, given to him in possession with a guard and millions who pay him for something.

The movement of peoples begins to fit into their shores. The waves of great movement have receded, and circles are formed on the calm sea, along which diplomats rush, imagining that they are the ones who produce the calmness of the movement.
But the still sea suddenly rises. It seems to diplomats that they, their disagreements, are the cause of this new pressure of forces; they expect war between their sovereigns; the situation seems insoluble to them. But the wave, the rise of which they feel, rushes not from where they expect it. The same wave rises from the same starting point of movement - Paris. The last spurt of the movement from the west is taking place; a splash that should resolve seemingly insoluble diplomatic difficulties and put an end to the belligerent movement of this period.

Historical geography Is a special historical discipline that studies the influence of the geographic environment on the development of human society. There are other definitions, for example, V. K. Yatsunsky gave the following: historical geography studies "the concrete geography of the population and economy created by society, as well as the geography of nature transformed by people, in the conditions of which these people of the past lived."

It is necessary to clearly understand the difference between historical geography and the history of geography. The history of geography or the history of geographical knowledge studies the history of geographical discoveries, expeditions and travels, as well as the history of geographical thought and the geographical representations of people in different historical eras.

Currently, historical geography as an independent scientific discipline includes the following main elements: physical geography, population geography, economic geography, political geography and cultural geography.

Historical physical geography deals with the study of the physical and geographical environment of past eras and the changes that have occurred with it in the historical period of time.

Physico-geographical environment- a set of natural conditions found in the historical practice of mankind (relief, climate, water resources, soil, flora and fauna, minerals).

Geographic environment- a necessary and constant condition of the material life of society, influencing its development. When studying the geographical environment, historical geography has the following specific tasks: to reconstruct the physical and geographical landscape of the historical past, to analyze changes in the geographical conditions of the studied territory over a historical period of time, to study the influence of natural conditions on economic and political geography in each of the historical periods. Changes in natural conditions under the influence of human activity also require considerable attention.

The influence of natural conditions must be considered with two circumstances in mind. First of all, the influence of the geographic environment on human society weakens or changes as the productive forces develop. The nature of this influence is always determined by the level of technology of a given society. For example, the development of technology leads to the emergence of the possibility of introducing into economic circulation previously unsuitable for this purpose plots of land. Water spaces - rivers, lakes and seas, which served as an obstacle on the way to new lands and to communication of people, with the emergence of means of transportation turned into communication routes, which were further expanded and improved (railways, canals appeared, navigation and shipbuilding developed). Thus, the role of one and the same geographic environment at different stages of the development of society can be different. The second important point that must be taken into account when studying the role of natural and geographical conditions is that their influence must be taken into account continuously, that is, at each historical stage.

Historical geography of the population is intended to consider the process of formation of the population of a particular territory, its ethnic composition, location, movement and other important spatial and demographic features. Some experts distinguish historical ethnic geography as an independent branch, which specifically examines the settlement and migration of tribes and nationalities in different historical periods.

Historical and economic geography(or the geography of the economy) studies the geography of production and economic ties with sectoral and regional characteristics. It, in turn, breaks down into smaller sections, such as the geography of crafts and industry, agriculture, land tenure, communications, transport, trade relations, etc.

Historical and political geography is engaged in clarifying the borders of states, internal administrative-territorial division, defining territories and regions that stand out in historical terms, locating points associated with certain political events, localizing cities, fortresses and other defensive structures, establishing routes for campaigns and places of battles.

Geography of culture studies the areas of religions, the distribution of objects that have cultural and historical significance, for example temples and monasteries, etc.

Sometimes other elements of historical geography are also distinguished, for example, the historical geography of settlements, historical topography, historical cartography, historical and geographical regional studies, etc. However, the above classification takes into account the largest components of this discipline and in within its framework, clarifications and additions are possible.

Basic elements, methods and sources of historical geography

The methodological base of historical geography includes most of the methods used in historical research. These include, in particular, analytical-synthetic and comparative-historical methods, retrospective analysis, statistical observation method, cartographic research method.

Analytical and synthetic method provides for the identification of facts, their systematization, generalization, determination of the essence of phenomena with a clear localization in space and time. The application of this method is most expedient in the study of the territorial growth of the country and its administrative structure, the study of spatial and demographic problems, as well as economic geography.

Comparative historical method provides for the use of historical-genetic and historical-typological comparisons, which make it possible to carry out the reconstruction of socio-geographical phenomena of past eras. Historical and genetic comparison means a way of establishing related phenomena generated by the common development of different peoples included in a single historical and geographical space (landscape zone, state). Historical and typological comparison presupposes the establishment of the similarity of phenomena that are not genetically related to each other, but formed simultaneously in different peoples.

A significant place in research on historical geography is occupied by retrospective analysis method, which allows you to recreate individual socio-geographical phenomena based on the establishment of their feedback. This method is often used to determine the internal administrative-territorial boundaries or areas of settlement of tribes and peoples in cases where the necessary information is not available in modern sources. On the basis of data from later sources, retrospective analysis and mapping are carried out (this is how, in particular, the borders of counties in Russia in the 17th century were determined). This method is especially fruitful when combined with field
research, archaeological data and aerial photography of a specific area.

Statistical observation method provides for the registration of facts in the form of censuses, reports, sample surveys; compilation of summaries to identify qualitatively typical phenomena and patterns; calculating averages; balance calculations. The methods of statistical observation are especially widely used in the study of the historical geography of the economy. The results of the generalization of statistical data can be used as the basis for historical and geographical studies reflecting the processes of economic development of individual regions, large regions or the entire country, and also allow compiling maps corresponding to these issues.

Perhaps the most specific method of historical geography is mapping... Its simplest form is the compilation of cartograms showing historical phenomena in a specific territory at a specific time (distribution of states and peoples, distribution of crops, population density, etc.). A more complex type of mapping is the compilation of historical maps or atlases that reveal the processes of social development (for example, maps characterizing the administrative structure of a country at different periods of its history, military-historical and historical-economic maps).

When solving historical and geographical problems, researchers usually rely on general historical sources. For the study of political and economic geography of the earliest periods, data from archeology, anthropology and place names are used. Act and legislative monuments are necessary to determine the boundaries and changes in the territory of the country and its administrative-territorial structure. Census data (census and census books, "revision" materials, etc.) are valuable for determining the size, composition of the population, its distribution and migration. The materials of institutions related to industry, agriculture and trade provide basic information for the characteristics of the economic.

Along with these species, such a source as cartographic materials is actively used in historical geography. General geographic and special maps, which in the past met the practical needs of management, defense and National economy, become obsolete over time and lose their operational and reference value. At the same time, their new qualitative value is manifested - the historical and source study. The methods of studying and using cartographic materials as historical sources are being developed by a special auxiliary discipline - cartographic source studies.

Development of the historical geography of Russia as a scientific discipline

Historical geography of Russia as a scientific discipline initially developed in the general mainstream of Russian historical science. If the accumulation of historical and geographical data took place already in the "chronicle" period of Russian historiography, then the first generalizations and gradual isolation of historical geography began in the 18th century. Even VN Tatishchev, in his main work, devoted many pages to discussing the benefits of geography in modern life, and he briefly defined its role in history: "Geography shows the position of places where what was before and now is." Although Tatishchev had not yet used the term "historical geography," its meaning was obvious to him. N.M. Karamzin had similar ideas, considering the geography of the past as an integral part of history. He began his "History of the Russian State" with a historical and geographical sketch, and in his work a lot of space is devoted to clarifying the location of various points and regions mentioned in sources.

NA Polevoy, listing the main sources of his "History of the Russian people", also mentions "geographical monuments." “An important aid for history! - he notes. - Philological research about living natural boundaries that have survived in any country in the names of lands, regions of peoples, rivers, mountains, cities, different places, serve as explanations for information about the beginning, distribution, movements of peoples and for news about their political and civil affairs " ... In addition, this author emphasized that "the geography of ancient Russia should be a subject of special and extensive knowledge."

In the 1830-1840s. a number of historical and geographical works by NI Nadezhdin appeared, among which the article "Experience of the Historical Geography of the Russian World", dedicated to the ethnic geography of Eastern Europe in the early Middle Ages and the issue of the initial settlement of the Slavs, stands out. "The first page of history," the author noted at the beginning of the article, "should be a geographical land map: it should not only be an auxiliary means to know where what happened, but as a rich archive of the documents and sources themselves." Nadezhdin did not give his own definition of the term "historical geography", although, perhaps, he was the first to introduce it into use in relation to Russia.

In 1851, the first volume of "History of Russia from Ancient Times" by S. M. Solovyov was published. At its beginning, the author not only gave a description geographic features"Russian state region", but also brought to the fore such an important historical process as the Slavic colonization of the East European Plain. Soloviev emphasized the importance of internal colonization for Russian history, without denying the need to clarify and clarify the geography of historical events. At the same time, he also outlined the main section of historical geography - the problem of the influence of the physical and geographical environment on the development of human society. Soloviev wrote that "the nature of the country is important in history for the influence it has on the character of the people." True, his conclusions from the point of view of modern science are highly controversial. In particular, the position that “luxurious nature”, rich in various resources, lulls human activity “both bodily and mental”, while “nature, more avaricious of its gifts, requiring constant and hard work on the part of man, always keeps the latter in an agitated state: his activity is not impetuous, but constant; he constantly works with his mind, unswervingly strives for his goal. " These conclusions are close to the primitive geographical determinism of C. L. Montesquieu, but Solov'ev's merit lies in the fact that he emphasized the importance of this topic for Russian history.

From the researchers of the second half of the XIX century. N.P.Barsov made a great contribution to the development of historical geography, who compiled the first specialized dictionary-reference book containing a list of geographical names of the Russian land of the 9th - mid-14th centuries, mentioned in the annals and some ancient legal acts. In it, the author sought to find out the location of certain points, primarily inhabited, and his comments were intended to clarify the discrepancies found in the annals,
or contained his toponymic observations. Barsov also owns the work "Essays on Russian Historical Geography", in which he analyzed the historical and geographical information of the "Tale of Bygone Years", comparing them with data from other written sources of the XII-XIV centuries.

In the same period, a whole series of studies on the historical geography of various regions of Ancient Rus, the Moscow state and the Russian Empire appeared. Among these studies, the works of GI Peretyatkovich and DI Bagalei stand out especially. Two works by Peretyatkovich dedicated to the history and colonization of the Volga region from the 15th to the early XVIII v., although not defined by the author himself as historical and geographical, have just such a direction. In them, the researcher comes to the conclusion that “the strict continentality of the country, which became the cradle of the Great Russian state, in connection with the direction of the rivers flowing in it, determined the movement of Russian society into the region. This, so to speak, spontaneous force, regardless of the characteristics of the character of one or the other of the acting personalities, determines the constancy of this movement in the being ... ”, suspended for a while by the Tatars. Peretyatkovich's works thus develop Soloviev's idea of ​​the importance of colonization in the history of Russia.

The study of the history of Russian colonization, initiated by Solov'ev, also determined the theme of the main research of D.I.Baalei. In 1886-1890. a collection of documents of the 17th – 18th centuries compiled by him was published. about the settlement and strengthening of the southern borders of the Muscovy and the Russian Empire. These documents, extracted from archival collections, provide rich material for the study of the historical geography of the black earth zone of Russia. On their basis, Bagaley created a generalizing work on the history of the colonization of the southern districts of the state during the period from the reign of Ivan the Terrible to the reign of Alexei Mikhailovich. It is characteristic that this historian, like Peretyatkovich, did not use the term "historical geography". It is impossible to find this phrase in one of the first generalizing works on this discipline by a major historian of the mid-19th century. I. D. Belyaeva. His book "On Geographical Information in Ancient Russia" is important both for historical geography and for the history of geographical knowledge. Starting his work with an analysis of the geographical representations of Russian people in antiquity and the Middle Ages, Belyaev proceeds to historical and geographical research: finding out the location of cities, territories and borders of principalities, lands in the 9th-15th centuries.

Considering the development of Russian historical geography in the second half of the 19th - early 20th centuries, it is impossible not to note the contribution that V.O.Klyuchevsky made to this process. Already his first scientific work "Legends of foreigners about the Moscow State", published in 1866, included an analysis of the information of Western European travelers of the 15th – 17th centuries. about geography, fauna, soils, climate, cities and population of the Moscow state. Later, in The Course of Russian History, published in 1904-1910, Klyuchevsky defined the history of Russia as the history of a country that is being colonized, and in the lectures of The Course he extensively argued and developed this position. Moreover, he so defined three main "historical forces" or components of the historical process: "human personality, human society and the nature of the country." Therefore, questions of historical geography, in particular colonization and the influence of the natural environment on the development of society, took an important place in his "Course".

Historical and geographical study of sources, as we can see from the example of many specialists of the second half of the XIX - early XX century. from Barsov to Klyuchevskoy, was a distinctive feature of the development of historical geography during this period. In a number of studies based on this principle, the work of EE Zamyslovsky on the Notes of S. Herberstein occupies a worthy place. In fact, this book may well be recognized as a generalizing study on the historical geography of Russia at the end of the 15th-16th centuries, since it compares Herberstein's news with the data of many foreign travelers of the 16th-17th centuries. and information from other written sources. Among the works of this historian, the atlas on Russian history compiled by him is also of great importance for the development of historical geography. It includes historical and geographical maps of Russia and Russia up to the 19th century. inclusive, as well as plans for the largest cities and battle schemes.

At the same time, several historical works were published, which contained extensive and interesting historical and geographical essays. First of all, this is a study by M.K.Lubavsky about the Lithuanian-Russian state and a monograph by S.F. Platonov about the Time of Troubles. The first chapter of Platonov's work, "The Oblasts of the Muscovite State," is entirely devoted to the historical geography of Russia at the end of the 16th century, then the author pays considerable attention to the geographical factor. The work of Yu. V. Gauthier "Zamoskovny edge in the 17th century" can also be attributed to historical geography to a large extent. (M., 1906).

At the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. a qualitatively new stage has begun in the development of the historical geography of Russia. At this time, independent training courses on this subject are being introduced into the programs of higher educational institutions in Russia. One of them was read by S. M. Seredonin at the St. Petersburg Archaeological Institute. Thanks to the then custom of students to lithograph the manuscripts of the lectures of leading teachers, they have survived. These lectures covered the most important problems of the historical geography of Eastern Europe in the early Middle Ages before the settlement of the Eastern Slavs, and were thematically divided according to the largest tribes and peoples of antiquity (Scythians, Sarmatians, Huns, etc.). It is very important that Seredonin used not only written sources (Russian chronicles, works of European, Byzantine and Eastern authors), but also archaeological material. Another course by the prominent Russian archaeologist A. A. Spitsyn was published in 1917 as a textbook. An overview of the geographical conditions of Eastern Europe occupies a separate place in it, and chronologically reaches the 17th century. MK Lyubavsky read historical geography at Moscow University and the Moscow Archaeological Institute. His course, based only on written sources, covers all periods of Russian history from the Eastern Slavs to the 19th century, and the theoretical scheme is a development of Klyuchevsky's position on colonization as a pivotal moment in Russian history.

After the October Revolution, in connection with the introduction of "social science" and the theory of socio-economic formations into science and education, historical geography was actually withdrawn from the circle of special historical disciplines. The official "Marxist-Leninist" historiography did not consider the geographical factor as an essential component of the historical process. Only a few works of the 1920s – 1930s. are important for the development of historical geography. For two decades this discipline disappeared from higher education, and only at the turn of the 1930s – 1940s. experts started talking about the need to revive this subject. At this time, a course in historical geography appeared at the Moscow State Historical and Archival Institute and developed intensively thanks to the energy of V.K. Yatsunsky. One of his largest works is devoted to the origin and development of this discipline in European science.

In the 1950s – 1960s. historical and geographical themes took place in the works of S. V. Bakhrushin, B. A. Rybakov, A. A. Preobrazhensky, M. V. Vitov, L. A. Goldenberg, A. I. Andreev, A. N. Nasonov, O. M. Medushevskaya, K. V. Kudryashov, N. N. Voronin, A. A. Preobrazhensky and many others. MN Tikhomirov also devoted a lot of space on the pages of many of his works, primarily in the books Old Russian Cities (Moscow, 1956) and Russia in the 16th Century (Moscow, 1962). In the last monograph, the author considered folding Of the Russian state in the 16th century, its administrative-territorial division, gave a detailed historical and geographical description of each of the historical regions of Russia, characterizing the natural conditions, territory, population (location, ethnic composition, migration), settlements, land tenure, agriculture, handicrafts and trades , trade, communication routes, etc. On the basis of rich factual material, the author demonstrated the local features of the development of each of the regions of the country, taking into account the entire set of historical, socio-economic and geographical factors that determined this development.

Due to the fact that the historical geography of our country began to be studied again as an auxiliary historical discipline in many universities, generalizing works and textbooks were published, such as the collective monograph by V.Z.Drobizhev, I.D.Kovalchenko and A.V. Muravyov "Historical Geography of the USSR" (Moscow, 1973) or the work of A. V. Muraviev and V. V. Samarkin "Historical Geography of the Epoch of Feudalism (Western Europe and Russia in the 5th – 17th centuries)" (Moscow, 1973). In the late 1970s and early 1980s. A.V. Dulov published a number of interesting works in which he examined the interaction of nature and society in Russia from the formation of the Russian centralized state to the middle of the 19th century. In particular, he considered the issues of the influence of natural conditions and the geographical environment on the population, agriculture, industry and transport, the use of nature by society, human changes in the nature of Russia, etc.

Apart from the series of historical and geographical studies of the second half of the twentieth century. there are the works of L.N. Gumilyov, who formulated a number of original, although far from indisputable, hypotheses related primarily to the impact on historical processes. These hypotheses were set forth by him in the works "Ethnogenesis and the Biosphere of the Earth", "From Russia to Russia: Essays on Ethnic History", "Rhythms of Eurasia: Epochs and Civilizations" and many others.

Among the specialists of this period, V.P. Zagorovsky made a great contribution to the development of historical geography; and the development of the Central by the Russian people. The works of S. V. Kirikov and L. V. Milov deserve attention. The monograph by V.P. Maksakovsky "The Historical Geography of the World" (Moscow, 1997) stands somewhat apart, since it examines the historical geography of Russia in a global context.

At present, interest in historical geography is growing, but this is manifested mainly in its development as a curriculum among other auxiliary historical disciplines. The scientific component of historical geography is clearly lacking in specialists. There is a lack of large-scale research on this subject.

INTRODUCTION

CHAPTER I. INITIAL SETTLEMENT AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF THE TERRITORY OF RUSSIAN REGIONS

§ 1. Initial settlement of the Russian Plain

§ 2. Features of the economic development of the Russian Plain in the VI - XI centuries.

§ 3. Russian regions as part of Kievan Rus

§ 4. Formation of feudal Russian principalities in the XII - XIII centuries.

§ 5. Colonization of lands and growth of cities in the XII-early XIII centuries.

§ 6. The seizure of Russian lands by the Tatar-Mongols

§ 7. The influence of the Golden Horde on the socio-economic development of the Russian regions

CHAPTER II. FORMATION OF THE RUSSIAN STATE, SETTLEMENT AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF ITS TERRITORY IN XIV-XVI CENTURIES

§ 1. Formation of the territory of the Russian (Moscow) state in the XIV-XVI centuries.

§ 2. Feudalization of the Golden Horde in the XV-XVI centuries.

§ 3. The situation on the western borders of the Russian state in the 15th - early 16th centuries.

§ 4. The situation on the eastern borders of Russia in the second half of the XVI century.

§ 5. Economic development and settlement of the territory of Russia in the XIV - XVI centuries.

§ 6. The structure of the economy of the Russian state in the XV - XVI centuries.

CHAPTER III. HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY OF RUSSIA XVII - XVIII centuries

§ 1. Formation of the territory of the Russian state in Siberia and the Far East

§ 2. Formation of the western borders of the Russian state in the 17th - 18th centuries.

§ 3. Settlement of forest-steppe and steppe territories of the country during the construction of fortification lines in the XVII - XVIII.

§ 4. Demographic and ethnic development of Russia in the XVII - XVIII centuries.

§ 5. Economic development of Russia in the XVII - XVIII centuries.

CHAPTER IV. HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY OF RUSSIA XIX century

§ 1. Formation of the territory European Russia in the XIX century.

§ 2. Formation of the territory of Asian Russia in the XIX century.

§ 3. Internal migration and resettlement of the population of Russia in the XIX century.

§ 4. Reforms and economic development of Russia in the XIX century.

§ 5. Transport construction in Russia in the XIX century.

§ 6. Agriculture of Russia in the XIX century.

§ 7. Industry of Russia in the XIX century.

CHAPTER V. DEVELOPMENT OF ECONOMY AND POPULATION, DEVELOPMENT OF THE TERRITORY OF THE COUNTRY (USSR and Russia) in the twentieth century.

§ 1. Formation of the territory of Russia and the USSR in 1917 - 1938.

§ 2. Formation of the territory of Russia and the USSR in 1939 - 1945.

§ 3. Administrative and political structure of the country at the stage of formation of the USSR

§ 4. Changes in the administrative - political division of the country in the 20s and 30s.

§ 5. Changes in the administrative - political division of the country in the 40s and 50s

§ 6. Administrative and territorial structure of the Russian regions of the country

§ 7. Dynamics of the population of the USSR

§ 8. Major changes in the social structure of the population

§ 9. Formation of the scientific and cultural potential of the country

§ 10. The main trends in the urbanization of the country

§ 11. Inter-district migration of the population and the development of the country's territory in the pre-war years

§ 12. Interdistrict population migration and development of the country's territory in the post-war years

§ 13. Formation of the system of planned socialist economy

§ 14. Industrialization of the country and the development of Soviet industry

§ 15. Collectivization of agriculture and its development during the Soviet period

§ 16. Formation of a unified transport system and a unified national economic complex of the country

INTRODUCTION

The curricula of the historical and natural-geographical faculties of pedagogical institutes and universities in Russia provide for the study of the course "Historical Geography". This science is one of the oldest in the systems of geographical and historical sciences. It arose back in the Renaissance and the Great Geographical Discoveries. In the second half of the XVI century. The Atlas of the Ancient World, compiled by the Flemish geographer A. Ortelius, was widely known in Europe. In the XVII - XVIII centuries. Historical and geographical research in Western Europe was carried out by the Dutchman F. Kluver and the Frenchman J.B. D'Anville, and in Russia - the famous historian and geographer V.N. Tatishchev.

From the second half of the XIX century. there is an expansion of the subject of study of historical geography. If earlier they looked at it as a science auxiliary to history, the meaning of which is the description of the places of historical events, then in the works of the late 19th century. - the beginning of the XX century. explores the deep socio-economic problems of the past. In this vein, works on the historical geography of Great Britain Darby were carried out. However, in general, in pre-revolutionary Russian and foreign science, the subject of historical geography was reduced to defining the political and ethnic boundaries of the past, the location of cities and other settlements, and places of historical events.

The specificity of the Soviet period in the field of historical geography was an integrated approach to the study of past historical eras. Monographs by A.N. Nanosov "Russian land and the formation of the territory of the ancient Russian state" (1951) and MN Tikhomirov "Russia in the XVI century" (1962). The methodological foundations of historical geography were studied by V.K. Yatsunsky in his work “Historical Geography. The history of its origin and development in the XIV - XVIII centuries. " (1955).

Historical geography began to be understood as a section at the intersection of historical and geographical sciences that studies the physical, economic and political geography of a particular country or territory in the past. At the same time, historical and geographical studies concretize data on the development of production in certain areas at various stages of development of society, highlight the geography of internal and external borders, the location of cities and rural settlements, various fortifications, also study specific historical events - routes of campaigns, places of military battles, the most important trade routes. An independent and fairly large section of historical geography is the history of geographical discoveries. Thus, in the process of its formation and development, historical geography was invariably associated with the solution of common problems of both history and geography. According to research methods, historical geography is complex. Its sources are written and archaeological monuments, information on toponymy and linguistics. Historical cartography is a special area.

Over the past 150 years, the most difficult problem of historical geography has been the study of the territorial organization of the economy and the settlement of the population of the studied countries and regions, the determination of the patterns of such a territorial organization at the junctions of various socio-economic formations. Therefore, within the framework of historical geography, two directions were formed - historical and geographical. This can be traced at the local Voronezh level as well. Geographical wing of historical geography in the 50s - 80s of the XX century. developed by the geographer professor G.T. Grishin. He believed that historical geography is a geographical science, and the subject of its research is the location of production (as a unity of productive forces and production relations) in the historical, temporal aspect. Within the framework of this understanding of the essence of historical geography, his works were carried out in the city of Voronezh and the Voronezh region. A major contribution to the formation of the regional historical geography of the Central Black Earth Region was made by the historian Professor V.P. Zagorovsky, known for his research on the Belgorod protective line.

In recent years, an ever wider interpretation of the subject of historical geography, associated with the processes of the formation of systems of historical and geographical sciences and cardinal global changes in social development, has been strengthening. Thus, the greening of science has led to the formation of such a point of view that the subject of historical geography is the study of the process of anthropogenization of landscapes, that is, the process of their economic development. With an even broader interpretation, historical geography studies the changes occurring in the geographic shell of the Earth. With this understanding, part of historical geography is paleogeography - the science of the physical and geographical conditions of the geological past of the Earth. From our point of view, such a broad interpretation of the essence of historical geography is hardly advisable, since it completely blurs the boundaries between social science and natural science.

Throughout the 80s and 90s of the XX century. Russian economic geography has finally transformed into socio-economic geography, the object of which is the territorial organization of society. In this regard, the study of the processes of the territorial organization of society in their temporal aspect can be considered the subject of historical geography as a science developing at the junction of history and socio-economic geography. At the same time, the territorial organization of society implies the territorial processes of the development of production, population and settlement, nature management, the development of culture and science, the formation of a state structure, external and internal borders. Such an integrated approach makes it possible to identify sustainable trends in the country's development and, on this basis, to determine its national geopolitical interests. Consequently, the historical-geographical approach is inherently constructive, since it allows us to understand the current situation.

CHAPTERI... INITIAL SETTLEMENT AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF THE TERRITORY OF RUSSIAN REGIONS

Many features of Russia that distinguish it from other states of Eurasia (for example, long-term extensive development, sharp territorial differences in the level of economic development and anthropogenization of landscapes, motley ethnic composition, complex territorial structure of the population and economy) are a natural result of the long history of the Russian state. IN. Klyuchevsky accurately noted the main historical feature of our country when he wrote that the history of Russia is the history of the country in the process of its colonization.

§ 1. Initial settlement of the Russian Plain

The initial source of Russia is in the first state formations of the Eastern Slavs, which arose as a result of their resettlement across the Russian Plain. From the VI century. to the XI century. the eastern Slavs settled not only the Dnieper basin (modern Ukraine and Belarus), but also the extreme western part of modern Russia. In the north, in the basin of the river. Volkhov and Fr. Ilmen was inhabited by Ilmen Slovenes. The northern boundaries of their settlement reached the Gulf of Finland, r. Neva, Lake Ladoga, r. Svir and Onega lake. In the east, the area of ​​their settlement extended to about. White and upper tributaries of the Volga. South of the Ilmen Slovenes, the Krivichi settled in a long strip along the course of the upper reaches of the Dnieper, the western Dvina and the Volga, the Upper Oka basin was occupied by the Vyatichi. On the left bank of the Dnieper, along the river. Sozh and its tributaries developed an area of ​​settlement of the Radimichs, and in the valley of the Desna, Seim and Vorskla - northerners.

In the northwest, the eastern Slavs bordered on the Letto-Lithuanian tribes (the ancestors of modern Lithuanians and Latvians) and the Finno-speaking Estonians (modern Estonians). In the north and northeast, the eastern Slavs bordered on numerous small Finno-Ugric tribes (Karelians, Sami, Perm - the ancestors of the modern Komi, Yugra - the ancestors of the modern Khanty and Mansi). Merya lived in the Volga-Oka interfluve, to the east of them, in the interfluve of the Volga and Vetluga and along the right bank of the Volga - Cheremis (modern Mari). A large territory from the right bank of the Middle Volga to the lower reaches of the Oka, Tsna and the upper reaches of the Khopra was occupied by Mordovians, south of which along the Volga lived related Burtases. In the Oksko-Klyazminskoe interfluve, the Murom and the place-ra, related to the Mordovians, lived. Already in the process of their initial settlement to the northeast, the Eastern Slavs mixed and assimilated small Finno-Ugric tribes (Vod, Izhora, Meschera), whose names are now preserved only in geographical names.

The middle part of the Volga from the confluence of the Kama to Samara was inhabited by a large Turkic-speaking people - the Volga-Kama Bulgars (ancestors of the modern Volga Tatars), east of which in the South Urals lived the Bashkirs close to them in language. A wide strip of steppes of the Russian Plain represented the area of ​​settlement of nomadic tribes, which replace each other here (the Ugric-speaking Magyars are the ancestors of the modern Hungarians, the Turkic-speaking Pechenegs and Polovtsians). In the VII century. on the northwestern coast of the Caspian Sea and in the lower reaches of the Volga, a powerful state arose - the Khazar Kaganate, whose military class was made up of nomadic Turks, and trade and diplomacy were in the hands of the Jews. In the period of the highest prosperity of this state, in the middle of the 9th century, not only Finnish-speaking Burtases, Mordovians and Cheremis paid tribute to the Khazars, but also the Volga-Kama Bulgars and Slavic tribes close to them. The economic orbit of the Khazar Kaganate included not only the basin of the Lower and Middle Volga, but also the forest Zakamye.

§ 2. Features of the economic development of the Russian Plain in the 6th - 11th centuries.

Initially, the East Slavic population settled in the zone of mixed forests and partly along the forest-steppe of the Russian Plain. The predominant type of economic activity was arable farming with a shifting and fallow land use system in the forest-steppe zone and slash-and-slash farming in the mixed forest zone. Agriculture was extensive and required large land areas. With the transfer system, plowed areas were thrown for 8-15 years to restore fertility. During fire slash farming, the selected area of ​​the forest was cut down. On the soil fertilized with ash, they were engaged in agriculture for 2 - 3 years, and then the site was abandoned and overgrown with forest. With a small population, focal settlement prevailed. First of all, river valleys, opolye within forests and lakeside lands were developed. Animal husbandry was closely connected with agriculture. Hunting, fishing and bee-keeping played an important role in the life of the Eastern Slavs.

In contrast to the Slavs, among the northern and northeastern Finno-Ugric peoples who lived in the taiga zone, the economic basis of life was such extensive activities as hunting and fishing. In the steppe zone of the Russian Plain, nomadic animal husbandry developed. As the number of Slavs grew, they needed more and more lands. All this predetermined the initial migration of the Slavs in the northeastern direction, to the zone of settlement of the Finno-Ugric tribes. At the same time, the Slavic and Finno-Ugric populations as a whole peacefully coexisted and complemented each other economically, since they used various farmlands: the Slavs - local areas in river valleys, on the shores of lakes and a few forest opolye, and the Finno-Ugric peoples - huge areas of watersheds ... This pattern of ethnic settlement has clearly manifested itself throughout the course of Russian history.

§ 3. Russian regions as part of Kievan Rus

An important role in the life of the Slavs was played by rivers, the main transport routes of that time. In the IX century. arose, and in the X century. - the beginning of the XI century. The trade route "from the Varangians to the Greeks" - from the coast of the Baltic to the shores of the Black Seas, gained the greatest prosperity. It passed along the rivers Neva, Volkhov, Lovat, Western Dvina and Dnieper. The route "from the Varangians to the Greeks" became the transport axis of the first large East Slavic state - Kievan Rus, which arose in the 9th century. under the princely dynasty of Rurikovich. The Volga route to the Caspian, the Caucasus, the Transcaucasus and the Arab countries was also of great importance. The importance of the Volga Way for the Eastern Slavs increased in the 10th century. in connection with the defeat the prince of Kiev Svyatoslav of the Khazar Kaganate, who then disappears from the political scene.

The first, most ancient Russian cities arose on the transport waterways. Of these, on the territory of modern Russia - Novgorod, Smolensk, Rostov, Murom and Belozersk - date back to the 9th century. The number of cities in Russia is growing rapidly with the development of trade and craft activities and the colonization of new territories.

The close economic and political ties of the Eastern Slavs with Byzantium, the largest power in the Eastern Mediterranean, whose capital Constantinople (or Constantinople) was one of the largest cities of the then world, predetermined the religious orientation of Kievan Rus. Since 988, under Prince Vladimir, instead of paganism, the state religion of Kievan Rus becomes Christianity of the Greek Orthodox direction. Orthodoxy for the Eastern Slavs acted as a powerful consolidating factor and had a decisive influence on the formation of a single ancient Russian nationality, Russian national character and spiritual culture. Although in the subsequent historical paths of Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians as successors of the ancient Russian nationality and diverged, they still have a lot in common. Orthodoxy is gradually spreading among other, first of all, the Finno-Ugric peoples of Russia, forming a common spiritual culture of the entire country.

§ 4. Formation of feudal Russian principalities in the XII - XIII centuries.

By the middle of the XII century. a significant expansion of arable farming, the development of crafts, an increase in the number of cities, their rapid formation as local centers of trade and economic ties split Kievan Rus into several practically independent feudal regions, where local princely dynasties began to take shape. Within the limits of modern Russia were the Vladimir-Suzdal, Novgorod, Smolensk, Muromo-Ryazan lands, a significant part of the Chernigov-Seversk land and the Tmutorokan principality located in the Azov region.

The largest principality of Russia XII - mid XIII centuries. was the Vladimir-Suzdal land. Initially, Rostov was its center; from the end of the 11th century. - the city of Suzdal, and from the end of the XII century. -G. Vladimir. In the south, the borders of the Vladimir-Suzdal land passed along the interfluve of the Oka and Klyazma, including the lower and middle reaches of the Moskva River. In the west, the principality covered the upper reaches of the Volga, including the lower reaches of the Tvertsa. In the north, the Vladimir-Suzdal land included the White Lake area and the lower reaches of the Sukhona in two large protrusions. In the east, the land border ran along the Unzha and Volga before the confluence of the Oka.

Vast territories were occupied by the Novgorod land - from the Gulf of Finland in the west and the Ural Mountains in the east, from Volokolamsk in the south and to the coasts of the White and Barents Seas in the north. However, the actual Novgorod feudal republic covered only a relatively small southwestern part of this territory - the Volkhov basin and Lake Ilmen. Initially, the Pskov land was part of Novgorod, which later became an independent feudal possession. A most of northern and eastern lands of "Lord Novgorod the Great" was the arena of economic activity of Novgorodians and depended on Novgorod only for tribute payments.

The Smolensk land covered the upper reaches of the Dnieper and the Western Dvina, therefore it occupied an internal position in relation to other Russian principalities. Deprived of the possibility of territorial expansion, the Smolensk principality entered the stage of feudal fragmentation as early as possible. In the south, the Chernigov-Seversk land stretched out in a wide strip. Its historical core was formed in the basin of the river. Gums within modern Ukraine. At the end of the XI century. the Seversk principality was separated from the Chernigov land. Its center was Novgorod-Seversky, located on the modern border of Ukraine and the Bryansk region of Russia. The lands of the Seversky principality stretched far to the east. Here, the Seversky lands included the entire right bank of the Don up to the confluence of the river. Voronezh. Further, the border went along the steppe to the upper reaches of the Seim.

At the end of the XI century. Muromo-Ryazan land was separated from the Chernigov-Seversky lands, which included the basin of the Lower and Srednaya Oka, the lower reaches of the Moskva River with the city of Kolomna. At the mouth of the river. Kuban, on Taman Peninsula the enclave Tmutorokan principality was formed. During Kievan Rus', its eastern border almost coincided with the modern eastern border of the Kuban. But already from the XI century. the ties of the Tmutorokan principality, cut off from the rest of the Russian lands by warlike nomadic peoples, are gradually fading.

By the XII - the middle of the XIII centuries. significant changes are taking place in the immediate environment of the Russian lands. A dynamic early feudal Lithuanian state was formed between the Neman and the Western Dvina, where paganism was preserved. For the preservation of national independence, the Lithuanian princes fought a fierce struggle against the German crusaders. A different political situation has developed in the Baltics. The area where the Estonians were settled was captured by the Danes, and the Lithuanian Order, a Catholic military state of the German knights - crusaders, arose on the Latvian lands. In the east of the Russian lands, in the basin of the Middle Volga and the lower Kama, a large state formation is being formed - the Volga-Kama Bulgaria. Its western border runs along the Vetluga and Sura, its southern border runs along the Zhigulevsky "mountains" and the Samara river to its sources. Bulgars (like the Slavs) abandoned paganism, but adopted another world religion - Islam. Therefore, the Volga Bulgaria was formed as the northernmost outpost of Muslim culture and in its external relations was oriented towards the Near and Middle East, Central Asia.

§ 5. Colonization of lands and growth of cities in the XII-early XIII centuries.

An important phenomenon in the life of the Russian regions of the XII - early XIII centuries. there was a significant outflow of the population from the Dnieper region to the northeast to the Vladimir-Suzdal and Muromo-Ryazan lands. The extensive nature of agriculture demanded more and more land. In addition, the forest-steppe regions were under increasing pressure from the nomads. The influx of the population caused the rapid development of agriculture in the Vladimir-Suzdal land. Here, the focal character of settlement is especially pronounced. The population concentrated in spots on small, most suitable for settlement areas. The most populated area is between the Volga and Klyazma rivers. In this "Zalesskaya land" the population is concentrated in "opolye" - local forest-steppe areas. The largest of them were Rostov, Suzdal, Pere-Yaslavl-Zalesskoe and Yuryev-Polskoe opolye. The opolye on the right bank of the Oka in the Muromo-Ryazan land were even more fertile. At the same time, the Smolensk and Novgorod lands were not distinguished by their fertility. For this reason, "Mister Veliky Novgorod" - the largest trading city on the Russian land, was heavily dependent on imported bread from the "Lower lands".

The "woodlands" were distinguished by a low population density - huge areas of forests and swamps, which were used as hunting grounds, for fishing and beekeeping. Huge tracts of forests were located in the Meshchora lowland between the Muromo-Ryazan and Chernigov lands, on the southern borders of Ryazan, in the south-west of the Novgorod land, in the Trans-Volga regions of the Vladimir-Suzdal land. In the forest-steppe zone, the population mastered only the northern sides of the forests, blocking the forests from the nomads.

In the XII - the first half of the XIII centuries. in addition to the further settlement of the areas of the old development, the development of new territories is taking place. Thus, the migration of Novgorodians to the north and northeast to the Ladoga-Onega inter-lake area, to the basins of Onega, Northern Dvina, Mezen and further east to the Ural mountains is increasing. From the basin of the Northern Dvina, Russian settlers through the Northern Uvaly penetrate into the basin of the Upper Vyatka in the area of ​​settlement of the Udmurts. From the "Zalessky lands" there is a resettlement to the forest Trans-Volga region and down the Volga to the lands of the Cheremis and Mordovians.

The concentration of the population in the opolye and the colonization of new lands are the basis for the growth of cities. In the first third of the XIII century. in the Russian regions there were already about 60 cities. A significant part of them (about 40%) were located in the Vladimir-Suzdal land, mainly along the opols and along the Volga. Novgorod was one of the largest cities in the Russian regions, in which 20-30 thousand inhabitants lived. In addition, the largest cities were Vladimir and Smolensk, as well as Rostov, Suzdal and Ryazan.

§ 6. The seizure of Russian lands by the Tatar-Mongols

The process of settlement and economic development of the Russian Plain at the end of the 30s of the XIII century. was interrupted as a result of the Tatar-Mongol invasion. At that time, all the nomadic tribes of Central Asia, united and conquered by Genghis Khan, the founder of the huge Mongol empire, were called Mongols. At the same time, the term "Tatars", which was widely used in Arab, Persian, Russian and Western European sources, was associated with one of the Mongol tribes. Therefore, the Tatar-Mongols as an ethnic formation represented a complex conglomerate of various nomads, in which not the Mongol-speaking, but the Turkic-speaking population of the steppe zone of Eurasia prevailed.

Mongol Empire of the first half of the 13th century occupied vast territories of Asia: in addition to Mongolia, it belonged to North China, Korea, Central and Central Asia, Iran, Afghanistan and Transcaucasia. As a result of the conquests of Khan Batu in 1236 - 1240. it included Eastern Europe, including the Russian principalities. In 1236, a huge army of the Tatar-Mongols defeated the Volga-Kama Bulgaria and invaded the Vladimir-Suzdal and Ryazan lands. The Tatar-Mongol army destroyed all large cities here, including in the Volga-Oka interfluve, went to the upper Volga, where the Novgorod city of Torzhok was taken, and devastated the eastern lands of the Smolensk principality. Only the Novgorod and Pskov lands escaped destruction, reliably protected by the impenetrable forests and swamps of the Valdai Upland. In addition, the Novgorod prince Alexander Nevsky, busy defending the western borders of the Novgorod land from the Swedes and German knights - crusaders, concluded a military

a political alliance with Khan Batu, preventing the destruction of the Russian northwestern lands and making them in the subsequent base of national revival. Descendants appreciated this forward-looking political act, and the Russian Orthodox Church canonized Alexander Nevsky.

Russian lands become the arena of constant military raids of the Tatar-Mongols. Only in the last quarter of the XIII century. there were 14 military raids on North-Eastern Russia. First of all, the cities suffered, the population of which was either slaughtered or driven into slavery. For example, Pereyaslavl-Zalessky was destroyed four times, Suzdal, Murom, Ryazan - three times, Vladimir - twice.

§ 7. The influence of the Golden Horde on the socio-economic development of the Russian regions

The Tatar-Mongol invasion and the subsequent hundred and fifty-year yoke made significant changes in the migration movement of the population. The southern forest-steppe regions were emptied, from where to the forest regions of the Smolensk region, beyond the Oka and Klyazma in the Vladimir-Suzdal land until the 15th century. there was a continuous resettlement. In the Vladimir-Suzdal land itself, there was an outflow of the population from the opol lands of the Zalessky lands to the western, more forested part of the Volga-Oka interfluve, to the Upper Volga and to the forest Trans-Volga region. The settlement of the White Lake area, the basins of the southwestern tributaries of the Northern Dvina (Sukhona, Yuga), the left Volga tributaries - Unzha and Vetluga, is taking place, and the colonization of the Vyatka basin is intensifying. Along with the Vladimir-Suzdal colonization of the northern lands, the Novgorod one is also growing. If the city of Ustyug the Great became the stronghold of the Vladimir-Suzdal migration, then Vologda became the stronghold of the Novgorod colonization.

As a result of the military campaigns of the Tatar-Mongols, the Russian lands fell into vassal dependence on one of the Mongol khanates - the Golden Horde (or the Jochi ulus). The Golden Horde included Western Siberia, the North-West of modern Kazakhstan to the Aral and Caspian seas, the Trans-Urals and the Southern Urals, the Volga region, the Polovtsian steppes to the Danube, the North Caucasus and the Crimea. The Golden Horde completely controlled the Volga trade route. In the lower reaches of the Volga, there was the Batu - Saray headquarters.

The Russian lands of the Dnieper region (modern Ukraine and Belarus), weakened by the attacks of the Tatar-Mongols, during the XIII-XV centuries. conquered by the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, which at the time of its highest prosperity stretched from the Baltic to the Black Seas and in which the Lithuanian lands proper accounted for less than a tenth. Lithuania carried out an active territorial expansion in the eastern direction. In the second half of XTV's. to Lithuania lands in the upper Volga and in the area of ​​about. Seliger, in the first third of the 15th century. - Smolensk land. The so-called Verkhovskoe principalities in the Upper Oka basin fell into political dependence on Lithuania.

The Tatar-Mongol yoke strengthened the feudal fragmentation of North-Eastern Russia. On the basis of the Great Vladimir principality until the end of the XIII century. six new ones arose - Suzdal, Starodubskoye, Kostromskoye, Galichskoye, Gorodetskoye and Moscow. Tverskoe and Dmitrovskoe stand out from the Pereyaslavl principality, and Belozerskoe from the Rostov principality. Some territorial changes have undergone the Yaroslavl, Uglich, Yuryev, Ryazan, Murom and Pronskoe principalities. In turn, within these principalities, there was a division into even smaller holdings - estates.

From the second half of the XIII century. Russian lands entered a long period of economic backwardness. The defeat of cities and the destruction of their inhabitants led to the irreversible loss of many craft skills. Vast territories south of the Oka have turned into the Wild Field. Economic ties with Europe have been largely severed. Culturally, Russia, although it retained its originality, was forcibly oriented towards the eastern nomadic culture; in the national character of the Russians, the “Asiatic” was strengthening.

CHAPTER II... FORMATION OF THE RUSSIAN STATE, SETTLEMENT AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF ITS TERRITORY INXIV- Xvicc.

§ 1. Formation of the territory of the Russian (Moscow) state inXIV- Xvicc.

During the XIV - XVI centuries. there is a complex and contradictory process of the formation of the Russian centralized state. It developed on the territory of the Vladimir-Suzdal, Novgorod, Pskov, Murom-Ryazan, Smolensk and Upper Oka lands. The historical core of Russia was the Volga-Okekoe interfluve, where in the XIV-XV centuries. Tver, Nizhny Novgorod and Moscow fought for political leadership. This rivalry was won by Moscow, which was located in the center of long-developed lands. Moscow prince Ivan Kalita received the title of "Grand Duke of Vladimir", which was passed on to his descendants. This title nominally determined the supremacy over the rest of the princes and gave the right to represent Russia in the Golden Horde.

The Moscow princes pursued a purposeful policy of uniting all Russian lands. For example, already at the beginning of the XIV century. initially, the relatively small Moscow principality more than doubled its size, and by the end of the century, most of the territories of the former Vladimir-Suzdal land, as well as some Ryazan and Smolensk lands, were included in the Moscow Grand Duchy. This policy of uniting the Russian lands around Moscow received full support from the Russian Orthodox Church, the head of which bore the title of "Vladimir Metropolitan" and from 1328 had a residence in Moscow. The Moscow princes received support from the church and in achieving political independence from the Golden Horde.

In the XIV century. the Islamization of the Golden Horde begins, which has caused additional stratification in this complex ethnic conglomerate. Some part of the Tatar aristocracy, refusing to accept Islam, entered the service of the Moscow prince, significantly strengthening his equestrian military power. The Golden Horde entered a long stage of feudal fragmentation, which was taken advantage of by the Moscow princes. In 1380, the united Russian army under the leadership of the Moscow prince Dmitry Donskoy defeated the Tatars at the Kulikovo field. Although this victory did not destroy the Tatar-Mongol yoke (they stopped paying tribute to the Horde only in 1480), but it had an important psychological significance in the formation of the Russian people. L.N. Gumilev wrote: “The people of Suzdal, Vladimir, Rostov, Pskov went to fight on the Kulikovo field as representatives of their principalities, but returned from there as Russians, although living in different cities” (Gumilev, 1992, p. 145).

The process of the transformation of the Moscow Grand Duchy into a Russian centralized state ends in the middle of the 16th century. In 1478 the Novgorod land was annexed to Moscow, in 1485 - the Tver principality, in 1510 - the Pskov willow 1521 - the Ryazan land. Since the XV century. the new name of the country - "Russia" was widely adopted, although even in the 17th century. the term "Moscow state" is also retained.

§ 2. Feudalization of the Golden Horde inXv- Xvicc.

Unlike Russia during the 15th - 16th centuries. The Golden Horde is increasingly split into separate fiefdoms - uluses. Its successor was the Great Horde in the Lower Volga. In addition, in the Irtysh and Tobol basins, an independent Siberian Khanate was formed, between the Caspian and Aral Seas, the Volga and the Urals - the Nogai Horde. In the basin of the Middle Volga and Lower Kama, an independent Kazan Khanate arose, the ethnic basis of which was the Kazan Tatars, the descendants of the Kama-Volga Bulgars. The Kazan Khanate, in addition to the Tatar territories, included the lands of the Mari, Chuvashes, Udmurts, often Mordovians and Bashkirs. In the lower reaches of the Volga, the Astrakhan Khanate was formed, the eastern border of which was practically limited to the valley of the Volga, and in the south and west the possessions of the Astrakhan khans went to the Terek, Kuban and Don. In the Azov and Black Sea regions, the Crimean Khanate emerged, which relatively quickly became a vassal of the Turkish Empire. The lower reaches of the Don and the Kuban basin fall into the political and economic orbit of the Crimean Khanate. In general, this huge nomadic world continued to make predatory raids on the Russian lands, but could no longer question the fate of the Russian state.

§ 3. The situation on the western borders of the Russian state inXv- the beginningXvicc.

At the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th centuries. a difficult situation was also on the western borders of the Russian state. In the northwest, with its Pskov lands, Russia bordered on Livonia, a confederation of spiritual principalities located on the territory of modern Estonia and Latvia. In the west and southwest, Russia bordered on the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, which included the indigenous Russian lands. At the same time, the border passed from the headwaters of the river. Lovat - between the sources of the Dnieper and the Volga - to the Oka in the area where the river flows into it. Ugry - east of the upper course of the Oka - to the sources of the Bystraya Sosna and along the Oskol to the Seversky Donets. Thus, within Lithuania was the southwestern part of the modern Tver, Smolensk, most of the Kaluga, Bryansk, a significant part of the Oryol, Kursk and Belgorod regions. As a result of the active and tough policy of Ivan III towards Lithuania at the very end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th centuries. these indigenous Russian lands yelled at the composition of the Russian state, which completed the process of national unification of the Russian people.

§ 4. The situation on the eastern borders of Russia in the second halfXviv.

In the second half of the XVI century. Russia is fundamentally resolving the issue of the Tatar states that arose on the ruins of the Golden Horde. They served as “the base for systematic military raids on the Russian lands. In addition, the huge Ottoman Turkish empire that emerged in the Black Sea and Mediterranean regions tried to use them in its expansionist policy. In 1552 the troops of Ivan the Terrible took Kazan by storm, and in 1554 - 1556. the Astrakhan khanst was also annexed: in. Russia began to possess the entire Volga basin. In the south, its borders reached the Terek, the upper Kuban and the lower Don. In the east, the border began to run along the river. Lik (Ural) and further north to the headwaters of the river. Belaya, Ufa and Chusovoy. The change in the political situation in the Volga region hastened the collapse of the Nogai Horde. The Nogai uluses, wandering between the Lower Volga and the Urals, formed the Great Nogai Horde, which repeatedly recognized the vassal dependence of Russia's honeycombs. Part of the Nogai uluses - Malye Nogai - went to the Azov region; settled the area between the Kuban and the Don and fell into dependence on Turkey.

At the end of the XVI century. the Siberian Khanate was also annexed to Russia. This fragile feudal formation, which arose after the collapse of the Golden Horde, did not have clearly defined boundaries. Its ethnic core was the Siberian Tatars living in the lower reaches of the Tobol and in the lower and middle parts of the Irtysh basin. To the north, the possessions of the Siberian khans extended along the Ob to the confluence of the river. Sosvy, and in the southeast included the Barabinsk steppes. The "Stroganov Lands" - vast territories along the Kama and Chusovaya, granted by Ivan IV to the Solvychegodsk industrialists, became the springboard for systematic armed expeditions against the Siberian Tatars. They had armed Cossacks in their service. Ermak's campaigns in 1581 - 1585 led to the defeat of the Siberian Khanate. For the consolidation of the middle part of Western Siberia for Russia, there were jail cities, including Tyumen (1586) and Tobolsk (1587). Thus, Russia included vast lands inhabited by Siberian and Baraba Tatars, Samoyeds (Nenets), Voguls (Mansi) and Ostyaks (Khanty).

On the contrary, in the northwestern borders, Russia's geopolitical position has deteriorated. In the middle of the XVI century. the Livonian Order ceased to exist. However, Russia's attempt by military means ( Livonian war 1558 - 1583) to expand the exit to the Baltic States was unsuccessful. Northern Estonia came under Swedish rule, and most of the Baltic states became part of the powerful united Polish-Lithuanian state - the Commonwealth.

§ 5. Economic development and settlement of the territory of Russia inXIV – Xvicc.

The formation of a centralized Russian state was accompanied by major territorial shifts in the distribution of the population. This was determined by the extreme unevenness in the economic development of the territories, and, consequently, the unevenness in the distribution of the population. So, in the middle of the XVI century. the population of Russia was 6-7 million people, and about half was in the Volga-Oka interfluve and adjacent territories. The process of colonization of the Russian North was still typical. From the Novgorod-Pskov land, the traditional resettlement to the north-east through Beloozero continued. The Dvinsko-Sukhonsky trade route to the White Sea began to play an important role in attracting the population. However, since the end of the XVI century. the outflow of the population from the basins of the Northern Dvina, Vyatka and Kama to Siberia begins.

From the middle of the XVI century. begins an intensive movement of the population from the historical center of the country to the chernozem soils of the Volga region and the Wild Field. On the Volga, a chain of Russian fortress cities emerged, with a rapidly growing commercial and industrial activity. Monasteries played an important role in the colonization of the North and the Volga region. To prevent the attacks of the Crimean and Nogai Tatars on the central regions of Russia in 1521-1566. the Great Notch was built. It stretched from Ryazan to Tula and further west to the Oka and Zhizdra. The notch line consisted of rubble marks in forests and earthen ramparts in open areas. Strongpoints with towers, drawbridges, forts and palisades were built in places where the population traveled. Under the protection of this Great serif line until the end of the 16th century. the settlement of the northeastern part of the modern Kaluga, the northern half of the Tula and more territory Ryazan regions. South of the Great Zasechnaya Line on the Central Russian Upland at the very end of the 16th century. a whole network of fortress cities (Orel, Kursk, Belgorod, Stary Oskol and Voronezh) emerged, which became centers of settlement in the black earth region.

§ 6. The structure of the economy of the Russian state inXv – Xvicc.

The formation of a centralized state as its consequence had a change in the forms of land ownership. Instead of patrimonial property, local, noble land tenure began to gain more and more distribution. If in the XIV century. a significant part of the land was still in the hands of the free peasantry, then already in the middle of the 15th century. As a result of the seizures, about 2/3 of the land used in the economy was concentrated from large landowners - votchinnikov. Patrimony land tenure is a hereditary form of land ownership by such large landowners as princes, boyars, monasteries and churches. The largest patrimonial tracts were located in areas of old development. At the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th centuries. there is a significant expansion of local land tenure. This was due to the wide practice of distributing land with serfs to the military class - the nobles, subject to their military or administrative service. Drastic changes in the geography of land tenure in Russia occurred in the second half of the XVI century. in connection with the introduction of the oprichnina. Local land tenure became widespread in border areas.

By the XV - XVI centuries. in Russia, there is a significant improvement in agricultural methods. In connection with the intensive deforestation, slash farming is increasingly giving way to field arable farming, in which, to restore fertility, the land is no longer thrown under the forest for many years, but is systematically used as pure fallow. Despite significant differences in natural conditions, the set of crops and animals was approximately the same type. Everywhere "gray bread" (rye) prevailed, while "red bread" (wheat) was grown more in the southern, forest-steppe regions.

In addition to cereals (rye, wheat, oats, barley, buckwheat, millet), flax and hemp were cultivated both for fiber and oil. Turnip is extremely widespread as one of the cheapest foodstuffs, which is reflected in the Russian proverb “cheaper than a steamed turnip”. Since ancient times, gardening has been developing in all Russian lands. At the same time, certain territorial differences in agriculture are also being formed. The main grain-producing region was the forest-steppe opolye of the Volga-Oka interfluve and the Ryazan lands. In the forest Trans-Volga region, agriculture was selective, and in Pomorie, in the Pechora and Perm lands, it only accompanied other types of activity.

In all regions of Russia, agriculture is combined with productive livestock raising, the development of which depended on the provision of pastures and hayfields. Special development received the breeding of cattle in the forest Trans-Volga region, in the Pskov land, in the rich meadows of the Northern Dvina, Onega and Mezen 'basins. The oldest Russian breeds of dairy cattle began to take shape here. On the contrary, in the southern forest-steppe regions, animal husbandry was oriented towards abundant pasture lands, and in some places (for example, in Bashkiria) it was even nomadic.

With the development of agriculture in the central regions of Russia, traditional forestry activities - hunting, fishing and bee-keeping - are becoming more and more secondary. Already for the XVI century. Typically, hunting was pushed aside to the forest marginal northern and northeastern regions - to the Pechora Territory, to the Perm land and further beyond the Urals to Western Siberia, which was fabulously rich at that time in furs, primarily sables. An important fishing area is the coast of the White and Barents Seas, and from the end of the 16th century. the importance of the Volga is sharply increasing. At the same time, beekeeping (despite the emergence of beekeeping) retains an important commercial value even in the old-developed areas.

In Russia of the XVI century. the territorial division of labor has not yet taken shape, but handicraft production is rapidly developing in a number of regions of the country. Of great economic and military importance is the production of iron, the main raw material for which remained low-melting bog ores, and charcoal was used as a technological fuel. The oldest regions of the handicraft production of iron and weapons were the Serpukhovo-Tula region and the town of Us-tyuzhna on one of the upper Volga tributaries, the Mologa. In addition, iron was produced in Zaonezhie, in the Novgorod region and Tikhvin. Shipbuilding appears on large river routes. Wooden dishes and utensils, various pottery are produced everywhere. Jewelry production was established in Moscow, Novgorod, Nizhny Novgorod and Veliky Ustyug, and icon painting, in addition to Moscow, in Novgorod, Pskov and Tver. The artisanal production of fabrics and leather processing were widely established. Handicrafts for the extraction of salt are widely developed in Pomorie, in the basin of the Northern Dvina, in the Kama region, on the Upper Volga and in the Novgorod land.

CHAPTERIIIXVII – Xviiicc.

At the very beginning of the 17th century. The Russian state again found itself on the brink of destruction. In 1598, the princely-tsarist dynasty of the Rurikovichs ended, a fierce struggle of boyar groups for the Russian throne took place. Time of Troubles put forward on the political stage various adventurers and impostors. Rebellions and riots shook the very foundations of the state. The Polish-Swedish invaders tried to seize the Moscow throne and the Moscow lands. Internal turmoil and military devastation bled the central, western, northwestern and trans-Volga lands. Significant areas have generally dropped out of agricultural use and are overgrown with forest "in the stake and in the pole and in the log," as the scribal books of that time noted. However, the salvation of the national independence achieved just over 100 years ago has become a national affair. The people's militia, assembled by Minin and Pozharsky in the Nizhny Novgorod land, defeated the Polish-Lithuanian invaders. A reasonable political compromise brought the Romanov dynasty to the royal throne in 1613, and Russia resumed its historical development.

In connection with significant territorial acquisitions, Russia is becoming a huge colonial Eurasian power. At the same time, the bulk of the newly annexed lands in the 17th century. accounted for Siberia and the Far East, and in the 18th century. the new Russian territories made up a wide strip from the Baltic to the Black Sea.

§ 1. Formation of the territory of the Russian state in Siberia and the Far East

In the XVII century. the rapid advance of Russian explorers to the Siberian lands continues. On the world market, Russia is the largest supplier of furs - “soft gold”. Therefore, the annexation of more and more Siberian lands rich in fur to Russia was considered as one of the priority state tasks. Militarily, this task was not particularly difficult. The tribes of hunters and fishermen, dispersedly living in the Siberian taiga, could not offer serious resistance to the professional military - the Cossacks, armed with firearms. In addition, local residents were interested in establishing trade relations with the Russians, who supplied them with the necessary goods, including iron products. To secure the Siberian territories for Russia, Russian explorers built small fortified cities - forts. It was more difficult to join Russia in the southern territories of Siberia and the Far East, where local residents were engaged in agriculture, animal husbandry and where the rudiments of statehood arose, there were sufficiently developed ties with Mongolia, Manchuria and China.

By the beginning of the 17th century. the approximate dimensions of the West Siberian Plain were identified, the main river routes and portages to the Yenisei basin were determined. Penetration into Eastern Siberia took place along two tributaries of the Yenisei - along the Lower Tunguska and along the Angara. In 1620-1623, a small detachment of Pyanda along the Lower Tunguska entered the basin of the Upper Lena, sailed along it to the current city of Yakutsk, and on the way back opened a convenient portage from the Upper Lena to the Angara. In 1633 - 1641 a detachment of the Yenisei Cossacks, led by Perfiliev and Rebrov, sailed along the Lena to the mouth, went out to sea and opened the mouths of the Olenek, Yana and Indigirka rivers,

The opening of the waterway along the Aldan predetermined Russia's exit to The Pacific Ocean... In 1639, a detachment of the Tomsk Cossack Moskvitin of 30 people along the river. Aldan and its tributaries through the Dzhugdzhur ridge penetrated into the valley of the river. Hive, went to the coast of the Sea of ​​Okhotsk and surveyed it for more than 500 km. One of the greatest events was the discovery in 1648 of the sea strait between Asia and America by a fishing expedition led by Popov and Dezhnev.

In the middle of the 17th century. Russia includes the Baikal and Transbaikal regions. Russian explorers penetrated the Amur basin, but met fierce resistance from the militant Mongo-speaking Daurs and Manchus, so the Amur basin remained a buffer land between Russia and China for 200 years. At the very end of the 17th century. the secondary discovery of Kamchatka and its annexation to Russia was carried out by the Yakut Cossack Atlasov. Thus, by the end of the 17th century. formed the northern and eastern borders of Russia. In the vast expanses of Siberia, the first Russian prison-cities arose (Tomsk, Kuznetsk, Yeniseisk, Yakutsk, Okhotsk and others). The final consolidation of the Pacific coast for Russia took place already in the 18th century. A special role here belongs to the First and Second Kamchatka expeditions of Bering and Chirikov (1725 - 1730 and 1733 - 1743, respectively), as a result of which the coastline of the northern part of the Far East, as well as Kamchatka, the Kuril Islands, and in addition Russia founded its colony in Alaska.

Relatively small territorial acquisitions were made in Siberia in the first quarter of the 18th century, when the Russians moved to the south of Western Siberia, to the Baraba steppe, to the upper reaches of the Ob and Yenisei. The border nomad Kazakh tribes recognized their dependence on Russia. Consequently, on this segment, the Russian border is acquiring, on the whole, modern outlines.

§ 2. Formation of the western borders of the Russian state inXVII – Xviiicc.

The western borders of Russia are being formed with difficulty. At the beginning of the 17th century. as a result of the Polish-Swedish intervention and the Russian-Polish war, Russia lost land in the Gulf of Finland (that is, it was again cut off from the Baltic Sea), as well as lost the Chernigov, Novgorod-Seversk and Smolensk lands. In the middle of the century, as a result of the uprising of the Ukrainians under the leadership of Bohdan Khmelnytsky against the Polish administration (1648-1654) and the ensuing Russian-Polish war, the Left-Bank Ukraine with Kiev was ceded to Russia. The Russian border reached the Dnieper. Russia began to directly border on the Crimean Khanate and the Small Nogai Horde closely related to it. This is a nomadic formation in the first half of the 16th century. broke up into a number of independent feudal possessions. For example, between Don, Manych and Kuban there was the Kaziev Horde, and in the Northern Azov Sea - the Edichkul Horde. In the context of the ongoing raids of the Crimean and Nogai Tatars to the southern Russian lands, Russia's retaliatory military actions led to the Russian-Turkish war of 1676-1681. As a result, the Zaporozhye Sich (the base of the Zaporozhye Cossacks on the lower Dnieper), the Northern Azov and Kuban regions became part of Russia.

In the XVIII century. Russia has fundamentally solved such complex geopolitical problems as access to the Baltic and Black Seas and the reunification of kindred East Slavic peoples - Ukrainians and Belarusians. As a result Northern War(1700 - 1721) Russia not only returned the lands seized by the Swedes, but also annexed a significant part of the Baltic. The Russian-Swedish war of 1741 - 1743, caused by an attempt by Sweden to return the lost lands, again ended in the defeat of Sweden. Part of Finland with Vyborg went to Russia.

In the second half of the 18th century. there were significant territorial changes on the western border of Russia in connection with the collapse of the Polish state, which was divided between Russia, Prussia and Austria. According to the first partition of Poland (1772), Latgale, the extreme east of modern Latvia, the eastern and northeastern regions of Belarus, went to Russia. After the second partition of Poland (1793), Russia received Belarusian lands with Minsk, as well as the Right-Bank Ukraine (except for the western regions). According to the third partition of Poland (1795), the main Lithuanian lands, western Latvia - Courland, Western Belarus and Western Volhynia became part of Russia. Thus, within Russia, for the first time in many centuries, almost all the lands of ancient Kievan Rus were united, which created the necessary prerequisites for the ethnic development of Ukrainians and Belarusians.

Wide access to the Black Sea became possible for Russia as a result of the defeat of the Crimean Khanate and a whole series of wars with Turkey, which supported it. Even at the very end of the 17th century. - the beginning of the 18th century. Russia made an unsuccessful attempt to recapture the lower reaches of the Don from the city of Azov. This territory became part of Russia only at the end of the 30s. Significant acquisitions in the Azov and Black Sea regions were made by Russia only in the second half of the 18th century. In 1772, the Crimean Khanate fell under the protectorate of Russia, which in 1783 was liquidated as a state. The structure of Russia included all the lands belonging to him, including the territory between the mouth of the Don and the Kuban. Even earlier, North Ossetia and Kabarda became part of Russia. Georgia came under the patronage of Russia under the "friendly treaty of 1783". Thus, as a result of the Russian-Turkish wars of the second half of the 18th century. Russia becomes a Black Sea power. The newly annexed lands in the Black Sea and Azov regions began to be settled by Russians and Ukrainians and were named "Novorossiya".

§ 3. Settlement of the forest-steppe and steppe territories of the country in the process of building fortification lines inXVII – Xviii.

During the XVII - XVIII centuries. Russia fully ensured the safety of not only internal, but also border areas from the raids of nomads by building a system of defensive structures. Large-scale resettlement of the population to the forest-steppe and steppe regions of the country is carried out under their protection. In the 30s of the XVII century. In connection with the aggravation of Russian-Crimean relations, the Great Zasechnaya Line was improved and reconstructed, which stretched for more than 1000 km.

In the late 30s - 40s, the Belgorod defense line was built, which stretched from Akhtyrka (in the south of the Sumy region of Ukraine) through Belgorod, Novy Oskol, Ostrogozhsk, Voronezh, Kozlov (Michurinsk) to Tambov. In the late 40s - in the 50s, the Simbirsk line was built east of it, which passed from Tambov through Nizhny Lomov to Simbirsk. Further east from Nizhny Lomov through Penza to Syzran in the mid-80s, the Syzran line was built. Similar protective structures are being erected in the forest-steppe Trans-Volga region. In the mid-50s, the Zakamsk fortified line arose, which, being the Trans-Volga continuation of the Simbirsk and Syzran lines, stretched to the Kama in the Menzelinsk region (the extreme north-east of modern Tatarstan). In the 80s of the XVII century. in connection with the rapid settlement of Sloboda Ukraine, the Izyum fortified line appeared, which was subsequently connected with the Belgorod line.

An even wider construction of linear protective structures in the border regions of the country was carried out in the 18th century, and not only in the steppe and forest-steppe regions. So, at the beginning of the 18th century. a fortified line Pskov - Smolensk - Bryansk was built on the western borders. Nevertheless, the construction of protective lines was of particular importance for the southern borders of the country, since it was accompanied by their settlement. At the beginning of the 18th century. The Tsaritsyn line was built, which ran from modern Volgograd along the Don to Cherkessk in its lower reaches and secured the southern regions of the Russian Plain from the raids of nomads from the Caspian region. In the 30s, the Ukrainian fortified line was erected, stretching from the Dnieper along the river. Orel on the Seversky Donets near the town of Izium, which to a greater extent defended the Sloboda Ukraine, populated by Ukrainians and Russians. During the Russian-Turkish war of 1768 - 1774. in the Azov region, the Dnieper or New Ukrainian defensive line was built, which ran from the Dnieper to the east along the river. Konskaya to the coast of the Sea of ​​Azov west of Taganrog. At the same time, a fortified line is being built to the southeast of Azov.

The advance of Russia into the Ciscaucasia was accompanied by the construction of the so-called Caucasian fortified lines. In the early 60s, the Mozdok fortified line emerged, which ran along the Terek to Mozdok. In the 70s, the Azovo-Mozdok line was built, which went from Mozdok through Stavropol to the lower reaches of the Don. The annexation of the Eastern Azov region to Russia caused the construction of defensive structures along the river. Kuban. In the early 90s, the Black Sea cordon line ran from Taman to Yekaterinodar (Krasnodar). Its continuation up the Kuban was the Kuban line, which extended to modern Cherkessk. Thus, in the Ciscaucasia by the end of the XVIII century. a complex system of fortified structures appears, under the protection of which its agricultural development begins.

Construction of protective structures in the 18th century continues in the steppe Trans-Volga region and in the Urals. In the 30s, the New Zakamsk fortified line was built in the Trans-Volga region, which stretched from the eastern edge of the Old Zakamskaya line of the 17th century. to Samara on the Volga. In the second half of the 30s - early 40s. along the river. Samara to the river. Ural Samara line was built. At the same time, the Yekaterinburg line arose, which crossed across the Middle Urals from Kungur through Yekaterinburg to Shadrinsk in the Trans-Urals, where it joined with the Isetskaya fortified line, built in the 17th century.

A whole system of fortified structures appears on the border with nomadic Kazakhstan. In the second half of the 30s of the XVIII century. the Old Ishim line was built, which passed from the river. Tobol through the Ishim prison to Omsk, and soon it was continued westward in two lines to the upper reaches of the river. Ural. With the settlement of the region, the Old Ishim line lost its significance, and in the mid-1950s, the Tobolo-Ishim line was built south of it, which passed through Petropavlovsk to Omsk. In the second half of the 30s, the Orenburg fortified line was built along the Urals from the upper reaches to the mouth. In the middle of the century, the Irtysh fortified line arose in the valley of the Upper Irtysh, and in the late 40s - late 60s from Ust-Kamenogorsk on the Irtysh through Biysk to Kuznetsk, the Kolyvano-Kuznetsk line passed. Thus, by the middle of the XVIII century. on the border of Russia with Kazakhstan, a huge system of fortifications was formed, which stretched from the Caspian Sea along the Urals to its upper reaches, crossed the Tobol, Ishim, went east to Omsk, then passed along the river. Irtysh.

§ 4. Demographic and ethnic development of Russia inXVII – Xviiicc.

During the XVII - XVIII centuries. there is a significant increase in the population of Russia and major shifts in its distribution. At the end of the 17th century. 15-16 million people lived on the territory of Russia, and according to the revision of 1811 - already about 42 million people. Consequently, in terms of population, Russia has become the largest European country, which, along with political and economic successes, allowed it to become one of the world powers. There was still a sharp unevenness in the distribution of the population. So, on the territory of the historical center of the country (Moscow, Vladimir, Nizhny Novgorod, Kostroma, Yaroslavl, Tver and Kaluga provinces) in 1719 lived about a third of the total population. By the end of the century, as a result of territorial acquisitions and mass resettlement of residents to the outskirts, the proportion of the central provinces decreased to one quarter, although the absolute size of their population increased.

At the same time, there was a process of territorial expansion of the country's demographic center. By the end of the 18th century. about half of the Russian population lived within the central non-chernozem and central chernozem provinces. The regions of intensive colonization are the Steppe South, South-East and the Urals. However, vast areas of the steppe Ciscaucasia were still empty. On them in the middle of the XVIII century. inhabited by about 80 thousand nomads - Nogais and about only 3 thousand Cossacks. Only by the end of the century the number of the nomadic and sedentary population became equal. Siberia remained a very sparsely populated region, the population of which at the beginning of the XVIII century. was a little more than 500 thousand people. By the end of the century, its population had doubled, but more than half of the inhabitants were in the southern regions of the West Siberian Plain. In general, Siberia in the 18th century. has not yet become an area of ​​active colonization.

With the annexation of the Volga region, the Southern Urals, Siberia, the Baltic States, Lithuania, Belarus, Ukraine and the Ciscaucasia, the Russian state finally turns into a multinational state. Along with the East Slavic peoples (Russians, Ukrainians, Belarusians), numerous Finno-Ugric peoples of the northern forest belt and equally numerous Turkic-speaking nomadic peoples of the steppe zone were widely represented in the ethnic structure of Russia. Russia is also acquiring a poly-confessional character. With the widespread spread of Orthodoxy as a state religion in Russia, significant groups of the population of other faiths found themselves - on the western outskirts - of Protestant and Catholic trends in Christianity, and in the Volga region, the Kama region and in the mountainous North Caucasus - Islam, in the right bank of the Lower Volga and in Transbaikalia - Buddhism.

Russian national identity is developing rapidly. The Russian mentality is acquiring the features of statehood, great power and God-chosenness. As a result of powerful integration political, economic and social processes, the Russian nation is being formed. All the peoples of Russia are beginning to feel the powerful influence of Russian culture. The settlement of the northern, southern and eastern outskirts leads to the formation of numerous ethnic groups of the Russian population. These are Pomors on the coast of the White Sea, Don, Kuban, Terek, Ural, Orenburg, Siberian and Trans-Baikal Cossacks. In the XVII century. as a result of the split in the official Orthodox Church, the Old Believers arose. Fleeing from the persecution of the authorities, the Old Believers move to the outskirts of the country. The original ethnic group of Russians is formed on the basis of the old-time population of Siberia.

§ 5. Economic development of Russia inXVII – Xviiicc.

Access to the coast of the Baltic and Black Seas led to a significant change in the transport and economic relations of Russia. The founding of St. Petersburg in the lower reaches of the Neva (1703), the proclamation of it as the capital (1713) of the huge Russian Empire, turned this city into the country's main seaport and turned the flow of foreign economic goods from the Volga and the Northern Dvina to it. In order to improve the transport and geographical position of St. Petersburg in 1703 - 1708. the Vyshnevolotsk system was built - a canal and a system of locks between the Tvertsa and Tsna rivers. To improve the conditions of transportation in 1718 - 1731. a bypass channel was dug along the southern shore of the turbulent Lake Ladoga. Since the Vyshnevolotsk system allowed navigation in one direction - from the Volga to St. Petersburg, at the very end of the century the construction of a more powerful Mariinsky water system began.

At the end of the 18th century. In connection with the formation of the all-Russian market, the foundations of the territorial division of labor were laid, which clearly manifested themselves already in the 19th century, Russia remained a predominantly agrarian country. A privileged position in it was occupied by the nobility, in whose interests the entire mechanism of economic management was formed. Already at the end of the 17th century. more than 2/3 of all peasant households were at the disposal of the nobility, while a little more than a tenth of the peasants were able to retain their personal independence. By the beginning of the 18th century. the difference between estates and estates was practically erased, since local possessions began to be inherited.

The needs of a market economy caused the landlords' monopoly rights to land and peasants. Serf corvée economy is becoming widespread. In the XVIII century. under the banner of Peter the Great's reforms, a new social class — the commercial and later industrial bourgeoisie — is being rapidly formed. Therefore, the economy of the XVIII century. was of a transitional nature.

Until the end of the century, sharp territorial differences in plowing areas persist. The largest specific gravity of arable land was the old farming areas with a high population density. If in the central chernozem provinces already half of the territory was under arable land, and in the central non-chernozem provinces - about 30%, then the plowing of the northwestern, middle Volga, southeastern and Ural provinces was 2 times lower. The main sown areas were occupied by grain crops, mainly gray crops. The most common industrial crops were flax and hemp. Flax was grown in the podzols of the northwestern, central non-chernozem and Ural provinces, while the production of hemp has historically developed in the forest-steppe zone on the Central Russian Upland. Livestock raising, as a rule, was extensive and focused on natural forage lands - hayfields in the forest zone and pastures in the forest-steppe and steppe zones.

In the second half of the 18th century. in Russia there is a manufacturing production based on wage labor. In the manufacturing industry, wage workers accounted for about 40%, while serf labor prevailed in the mining industry. Petersburg and its environs became a large industrial area. The industry of St. Petersburg met the needs of the army, the royal palace and the higher nobility. The largest industrial enterprises of St. Petersburg were the Admiralty and the Arsenal, which united a number of industries, becoming the basis for the subsequent development of the metalworking industry. The Petersburg textile industry, on the one hand, produced broadcloths and linens for the needs of the army and navy, and, on the other hand, luxury goods - tapestries and silk fabrics based on imported raw materials.

The traditional industrial region was the central non-chernozem provinces. Industry here was still developing on the basis of patrimonial serf manufactories and peasant handicraft production. In the time of Peter the Great, merchant manufactories arose here, working on hired labor. The most important was the textile industry, as well as leather dressing and glass production. Ferrous metallurgy and metalworking have acquired all-Russian importance. The Tula Arms Factory, which emerged on the basis of handicrafts, played an important role in ensuring the country's independence.

Rapid development in the time of Peter the Great receives metallurgical industry Ural. The wealth of the Urals in iron and copper ores and forests, the use of cheap labor of registered peasants predetermined the significance of this region in the history of the country. If in 1701 the first Nevyansk metallurgical plant was built in the Urals (halfway between Yekaterinburg and Nizhny Tagil), then already in 1725 the Urals began to produce 3/4 of all iron smelting in Russia. The Urals retained their leading role in ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy until the 1880s. Thus, already in the XVIII century. such a characteristic feature of Russian industry as its high territorial concentration is being formed.

CHAPTERIV... HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY OF RUSSIAXIXv.

§ 1. Formation of the territory of European Russia inXIXv.

In the XIX century. Russia continues to form as one of the largest colonial powers in the world. Moreover, the main colonial conquests in the first half of the 19th century. took place in the European part and in the Caucasus, and in the second half of the century - in the eastern part of the country. At the beginning of the XIX century. as a result of the Russian-Swedish war, Finland and the Aland archipelago became part of Russia. In Russia, the “Grand Duchy of Finland” occupied an autonomous position, determined by the constitution, and in cultural and economic relations was oriented towards the countries of Europe.

From 1807 to 1814 on the western borders of Russia, as a result of Napoleonic policy, there was an ephemeral Duchy of Warsaw, created on the basis of Polish lands taken from Prussia and Austria. Therefore, during the Patriotic War of 1812, the Poles fought on the side of the French. After the defeat of Napoleonic France, the territory of the Duchy of Warsaw was again divided between Russia, Austria and Prussia. The central part of Poland - the so-called "Kingdom of Poland", which had some autonomy, became part of the Russian Empire. However, after the Polish uprising of 1863-1864. Poland's autonomy was abolished and provinces were formed on its territory similar to the provinces of the Russian regions.

Throughout the 19th century. the military confrontation between Russia and Turkey continued. In 1812, Orthodox Bessarabia (between the Dniester and Prut rivers of present-day Moldova) ceded to Russia, and in the 70s - the mouth of the river. Danube.

The most fierce nature of the Russian-Turkish confrontation was in the Caucasus, where the imperial interests of Russia, Turkey and Iran collided, and where the local peoples waged a long struggle for physical survival and national independence. By the beginning of the century, the entire eastern coast of the Black Sea south of Anapa belonged to Turkey, and Eastern Armenia (the modern Republic of Armenia) and Azerbaijan represented a conglomerate of small khanates subordinate to Iran. In the central part of Transcaucasia, since 1783, the Orthodox Georgian Kingdom of Kartli and Kakheti was under the protectorate of Russia.

At the beginning of the XIX century. Eastern Georgia is losing its statehood and is part of Russia. In addition, the Western Georgian principalities (Mingrelia, Imereti, Abkhazia) were included in the Russian Empire, and after the next Russian-Turkish war - the entire Black Sea coast (including the region of Poti) and the Akhaltsikhe province. By 1828, the coastal part of Dagestan and the modern territories of Armenia and Azerbaijan became part of Russia.

Long time Islamic mountainous regions - Adygea, Chechnya and northwestern Dagestan - retained political independence in the Caucasus. The highlanders of the Eastern Caucasus put up stubborn resistance to the Russian troops. The advancement of Russians to the mountainous regions of Chechnya and Dagestan led to the fact that at the end of the 18th century. the interfluve of the Terek and Sunzha was annexed to Russia. To protect this territory from the attacks of the mountaineers at the beginning of the XIX century. the Sunzhenskaya fortified line was built along the river. Sunzha from Terek to Vladikavkaz. In the 30s, a military-theocratic state emerged in Chechnya and the mountainous part of Dagestan, headed by Imam Shamil, which was defeated by the tsarist troops only in 1859, when Chechnya and Dagestan became part of Russia. As a result of prolonged hostilities, Adygea was annexed to Russia in 1864. The consolidation of this territory for Russia was facilitated by the construction of the Labinskaya, Urupskaya, Belorechenskaya and Black Sea fortified lines. The last territorial acquisitions in the Caucasus were made by Russia as a result of the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878. (Adjara and the Kars region, which again became part of Turkey after the 1st World War).

§ 2. Formation of the territory of Asian Russia inXIXv.

During the second half of the XIX century. the Russian Empire includes South Kazakhstan and Central Asia. The northern part of modern Kazakhstan ended up in Russia in the 18th century. To secure the steppe lands for Russia and prevent the attack of nomads in the 19th century. the construction of linear fortified structures continues. At the beginning of the century, the Novo-Iletskaya line was built south of Orenburg, running along the river. Ilek, in the mid-20s - Embenskaya line along the river. Emba, and in the mid-30s - a new line in the left bank of the Urals from Orsk to Troitsk and a defensive line from Akmolinsk to Kokchetav.

In the middle of the XIX century. active construction of defensive line structures was already taking place on the territory of South Kazakhstan. The New Siberian Line stretches from Semipalatinsk to Verny (a Russian fortress on the site of modern Alma-Ata). To the west from Verny to the river. The Kokand line passed through the Syr-Darya. In the 50s and 60s, the Syr-Darya line was built along the Syr-Darya from Kazalinsk to Turkestan.

At the end of the 60s, the colonization of Central Asia took place. In 1868, the Kokand Khanate recognized vassal dependence on Russia, and after 8 years its territory as the Fergana region became part of Russia. In the same 1868, the Russian protectorate recognized the Bukhara Emirate, and in 1873 - the Khiva Khanate. In the 80s, Turkmenistan became part of Russia.

The final formation of the Russian border in the south of the Far East is taking place. Back in the first half of the 19th century. Russian power was established in Sakhalin. According to the Beijing Treaty with China in 1860, the Amur and Primorye regions, which are rarely inhabited by local tribes of hunters and fishermen, are transferred to Russia. In 1867, the tsarist government sold Alaska and the Aleutian Islands, which belonged to Russia, to the United States. Under an agreement with Japan in 1875, Russia in exchange for the Kuril Islands secures the entire about. Sakhalin, the southern half of which went to Japan as a result Russo-Japanese War 1904 - 1905

Thus, by the beginning of the XX century. Russia has developed into a huge colonial power with a multinational population. The centuries-old policy of colonization pursued by the state led to the blurring of the boundaries between the metropolis and the internal national colonies. Many Russian colonial possessions acquired an enclave character, since they were surrounded by lands with a predominantly Russian population, or they themselves had a complex ethnic composition. In addition, the level of economic and social development of many national territories in the European part of Russia was significantly higher than in the historical center of the country. All this predetermined significant features of the development of Russia not only in the 19th century, but also in the 20th century.

§ 3. Internal migrations and resettlement of the population of Russia inXIXv.

Throughout the XIX century. Russia has become one of the largest in number

population of the countries of the world. If in 1867 the population of the Russian Empire (excluding Finland and the Kingdom of Poland) was 74.2 million people, then in 1897 "- already 116.2 million people and in 1916 - 151.3 million people. Population growth rates are sharply increasing - the population doubled in about 60. This “demographic explosion” was based not only on the process of territorial expansion of the country, but also on high rates of natural growth and widespread large families.

The development of capitalism led to the formation of a labor market, the rapid development of colonization - the settlement of new lands and urbanization - massive migration flows of the population to growing cities and industrial centers. In the late XIX - early XX centuries. Russia is one of the largest grain exporters. This was due to the fact that after the peasant reform of 1861 there was a massive plowing of chernozems and the settlement of the lands of Novorossiya, the Don Cossack region, the steppe Ciscaucasia, the Volga region, the Southern Urals and Siberia. From 1861 to 1914, about 4.8 million people moved to Siberia. The bulk of the settlers settled in the south of Western Siberia (including the northern regions of modern Kazakhstan), especially in the foothills of Altai and the Tobol and Ishim basins. To the east of the Yenisei, the settlers settled in a narrow strip along the Great Siberian Railway, which passed through the forest-steppe and steppe enclaves. The population of Russia, which ceded to Russia, is growing rapidly only in the middle of the 19th century. Primorye and Priamurye, which for a long time have been characterized by a weak population.

With the development of capitalist relations, cities are growing rapidly. If in 1811 the urban population of Russia was about 5% of its population, then in 1867 about 10% of the population of European Russia lived in cities, and in 1916 - over 20%. At the same time, the level of urbanization eastern regions countries (Siberia and the Far East, Kazakhstan) was two times lower. There is a clear tendency for the concentration of urban dwellers in ever larger cities, although the structure of urban settlement as a whole has a balanced character. The largest centers of the country's migration attraction were the capital cities of St. Petersburg and Moscow, whose population grew due to migration and which formed huge zones of migration attraction. So, not only the provinces of the modern North-West (Petersburg, Novgorod-ekaya and Pskov), but also the entire north-western part of the modern Central region (Smolensk, Tver, Yaroslavl provinces) and the west of the Vologda province gravitated towards St. Petersburg. At the beginning of the XX century. Petersburg is the largest city in Russia (2.5 million people in 1917).

In turn, Moscow, in addition to the Moscow province, grew at the expense of migrants from the Oka territories (Tula, Kaluga and Ryazan provinces). Despite the fact that Moscow developed in the densely populated historical center of the country, the loss of it from the beginning of the 18th century. metropolitan functions could not but affect the rate of population growth. For a long time, Moscow retained its patriarchal noble-bourgeois character, and its functional profile began to change only from the middle of the 19th century, when it was rapidly acquiring commercial and industrial features. At the beginning of the XX century. Moscow is the second largest city in Russia (1.6 million people in 1912). A large area of ​​migration attraction at the very end of the 19th century. - the beginning of the XX century. steel mining and metallurgical centers of Donbass. Since they arose on the territory of the colonized steppe south, they formed a fairly wide zone of migration attraction, which included both the Russian central black earth provinces and the Ukrainian territories of the Dnieper region. Therefore, in the Donbass, as well as in Novo-Russia and Sloboda Ukraine, a mixed Russian-Ukrainian population was historically formed.

In Russia, vast territories of mass migration outflow are formed - the former serf provinces with a significant surplus of the population (relative agrarian overpopulation). These are, first of all, the northern commercial and agricultural provinces (Pskov, Novgorod, Tver, Kostroma, Vologda, Vyatka) with unfavorable conditions for agriculture and a long-standing trend of seasonal seasonal trades. The migration outflow significantly reduced the demographic potential of the region and became the first "act" of the drama of the Russian Non-Black Earth Region. The main areas of mass migration outflow were the provinces of the Central Chernozem region, the southern strip of the Central region of the right-bank part of the Volga region, northeastern Ukraine and Belarus. From this region until the end of the 19th century. more than a tenth of the population left, but at the beginning of the XX century. distinguished by significant labor resources.

russia settlement territory industry

§ 4. Reforms and economic development of Russia inXIXv.

The economic image of Russia throughout the nineteenth century. was radically changed as a result of the abolition of serfdom and massive railway construction. If the reform of 1861 allowed millions of peasants to live in civilian life and contributed to the flourishing of entrepreneurship, the railways radically changed the transport and geographical position of both the country and its regions and entailed significant changes in the territorial division of labor.

The reform of 1861 gave not only personal freedom to the peasants, but also led to significant changes in the structure of land tenure. Before the reform, the nobles owned a third of all land in European Russia. A particularly high proportion of noble landownership developed in the central non-black earth, central black earth and north-western provinces of Russia, as well as in the Ukraine and Belarus. In the sparsely populated outlying regions of European Russia and Siberia, the state form of land ownership prevailed.

The peasant reform of 1861 was of a compromise nature. Although it was carried out in the interests of the peasants, the reform did not contradict the interests of the landlords. It provided for a gradual, decades-long land purchase. As a result of the redemption of allotments from landowners, the imperial family and the state, the peasants gradually became its owners. In addition, land became an object of purchase and sale, so purely bourgeois land ownership began to grow. By 1877, noble land ownership accounted for less than 20% of all land in European Russia, and by 1905 - only about 13%. At the same time, noble landownership retained its positions in the Baltic States, Lithuania, Belarus, right-bank Ukraine, and in Russia, in this regard, the middle Volga and central black earth provinces stood out.

As a result of the implementation of the reform, by the end of the century, the peasantry began to dominate in Russian land ownership. The proportion of peasant lands in European Russia at the beginning of the XX century. grew to 35%, and they began to prevail in most of its regions. However, peasant private ownership of land until 1905 was insignificant. In areas with a predominance of the Russian population, in Eastern Belarus, in the forest-steppe Ukraine and even in Novorossia, peasant communal land use was undividedly dominated, which provided for frequent redistribution of land in accordance with the number of families and mutual responsibility in serving duties to the landowners and the state. The communal form of land use with elements of local self-government historically arose in Russia as a condition for the survival of the peasantry and had a profound impact on its psychology. By the beginning of the XX century. the community has already become a brake on the country's development. The Stolypin agrarian reform of 1906, interrupted by the outbreak of the world war and revolution, was aimed at the destruction of the peasant community and the formation of private peasant land property. Thus, at the end of the XIX century. - the beginning of the XX century. in Russia, a diversified commercial agriculture is being formed, which has turned the country into one of the largest exporters of agricultural products.

§ 5. Transport construction in Russia inXIXv.

The most important factor in the economic development of Russia XIX - early XX centuries. becomes a massive internal transport, which was determined by the vastness of its territory, remoteness from sea ​​coasts, which began the massive development of minerals and fertile lands in the peripheral parts of the country. Until the middle of the XIX century. the main role played inland waterway transport. To ensure regular navigation between the Volga and Neva basins, the Mariinsky water system was built in 1810, passing along the route: Sheksna - White Lake - Vytegra - Lake Onega - Svir - Lake Ladoga - Neva. Later, canals were created to bypass the White and Onega lakes. In 1802-1811. the Tikhvin water system was built, connecting the Volga tributaries of the Mologa and Chagodosha with the Tikhvinka and Syasyu, which flows into Lake Ladoga. Throughout the XIX century. there is a repeated expansion and improvement of these water systems. In 1825 - 1828. a canal was built connecting the Sheksna with the Sukhona tributary of the Northern Dvina. The Volga becomes the main transport artery of the country. By the beginning of the 60s, the Volga basin accounted for% of all cargo transported along the inland waterways of European Russia. The largest consumers of bulk cargo were St. Petersburg and the Central Non-Black Earth Region (especially Moscow).

In the second half of the XIX century. Railways become the main mode of internal transport, and water transport fades into the background. Although railway construction in Russia began in 1838, two periods of particularly intensive development stand out in it. In the 60s-70s, railway construction was mainly carried out in the interests of the development of agriculture. Therefore, railways connected the main agricultural areas with both the main domestic food consumers and the leading export ports. At the same time, Moscow becomes the largest railway junction.

Back in 1851, the Moscow-Petersburg railway connected both Russian capitals and provided a cheap and quick way out from Central Russia to the Baltic. Subsequently, railways were built connecting Moscow with the Volga region, the Black Earth Center, Sloboda Ukraine, the European North and the western regions of the Russian Empire. By the early 1980s, the backbone of the railway network of European Russia had been created. The newly built railways and the inland waterways that have retained their importance have become the framework for the formation of a single agricultural market in Russia.

The second period of intensive railway construction fell on the early 90s. In 1891, construction began on the Great Siberian Railway, which ran through southern Siberia to Vladivostok. By the end of the century, railways intercepted the transportation of bulk goods, especially bread, from inland waterway transport. This caused, on the one hand, a sharp reduction in river transportation of grain and stagnation (stagnation) of many Central Russian cities in the Oka basin, and, on the other hand, increased the role of the Baltic ports, which began to compete with St. Petersburg. With the industrial development of the country, the railway transportation of coal, ores, metals, building materials increased. Thus, rail transport has become a powerful factor in the formation of the territorial division of labor.

§ 6. Agriculture of Russia inXIXv.

By the end of the XIX - beginning of the XX centuries. Russia has become one of the largest food producers in the world market. The agricultural development of the territory, including plowing, has sharply increased, especially in the European part. For example, in the central chernozem provinces, arable land already accounted for 2/3 of their land, and in the Middle Volga region, in the southern Urals and in the central non-chernozem provinces - about a third.

In connection with the crisis situation in the agriculture of the old serf regions, the production of commercial grain, primarily wheat, is moving to the newly plowed areas of Novorossia, the North Caucasus, the steppe Trans-Volga region, the South Urals, the south of Western Siberia and Northern Kazakhstan. The most important food crop is potato, which turns from a garden crop into a field crop. Its main producers were the central black earth, central industrial provinces, Belarus and Lithuania. The intensification of Russian agriculture also took place in connection with the expansion of areas under industrial crops. Along with flax and hemp, sugar beets and sunflowers have become important. Sugar beet has been cultivated in Russia since the beginning of the 19th century. in connection with the continental blockade imposed by Napoleon, which made it impossible to import cane sugar. The main sugar beet regions were Ukraine and the central black earth provinces. The main raw material for the production of vegetable oil by the beginning of the XX century. became sunflower, the crops of which were concentrated in the Voronezh, Saratov and Kuban provinces.

In contrast to grain production, animal husbandry as a whole had a purely Russian significance. While Russia was ahead of even many European countries in terms of the provision of draft animals, it lagged behind in the development of productive livestock breeding. Animal husbandry was extensive and focused on rich hayfields and pastures. Therefore, the main livestock of productive livestock at the beginning of the XX century. accounted for, on the one hand, in the Baltic States, Belarus and Lithuania, and, on the other hand, in the Black Sea Ukraine, the Ciscaucasia, the Lower Volga region and the Southern Urals. Compared to European countries, Russia was inferior in the development of pig breeding and exceeded the density of the sheep population.

§ 7. Industry of RussiaXIXv.

By the beginning of the 80s of the XIX century. Russia completed an industrial revolution, in the process of which manual manufacturing was replaced by factories - large enterprises equipped with machines. The industrial revolution also led to important social shifts in Russian society - the formation of a class of wage workers and the commercial and industrial bourgeoisie. In large-scale industrial production in Russia at the beginning of the 20th century. industries producing consumer goods, primarily the food and textile industries, prevailed sharply. The main branch of the food industry is sugar beet production. Other leading industries were flour milling, concentrated not only in the areas of commercial grain farming, but also in large centers of consumption, as well as the alcoholic beverage industry, which, in addition to grain, began to widely use potatoes. The textile industry has historically been concentrated in the central industrial provinces on the basis of handicrafts and local raw materials. By the beginning of the century, the production of cotton fabrics based on Central Asian cotton was widespread here. In addition, woolen, linen and silk fabrics were produced. In addition to the Industrial Center, the textile industry developed in St. Petersburg and the Baltic States.

Late 19th - early 20th centuries characterized by the rapid development of mechanical engineering, which was represented primarily by the production of steam locomotives, carriages, ships, machinery and electrical equipment, agricultural machinery. Mechanical engineering was characterized by a high territorial concentration (St. Petersburg, Industrial Center, Donbass and Dnieper). The basis of machine production at the end of the 19th century. steam engines became, which required the mass production of mineral fuels. Since the 70s. XIX century. coal mining is rapidly increasing. In fact, the Donbass becomes the only coal basin in the country, with the brown coal mines of the Moscow region unable to compete with it. In the 90s, to ensure the functioning of the Great Siberian Railway, coal mining began beyond the Urals, especially in the Kuzbass. In the 80s and 90s, oil production grew rapidly, primarily on the Absheron Peninsula of Azerbaijan and in the region of Grozny. Since the main consumers of oil were in the North-West and in the Industrial Center, its massive transportation along the Volga began.

The rapidly developing mechanical engineering required the mass production of cheap metals. In the late XIX - early XX centuries. The main producer of ferrous metals (cast iron, iron and steel) is the Southern mining and industrial region - both the Donbass and the Dnieper region. Large-scale metallurgical production in the South was based on foreign capital and used coal coke as a process fuel. In contrast, the metallurgical industry of the Urals, which had arisen under the conditions of serfdom, was represented by old small factories that used charcoal as a technological fuel and were guided by the handicraft skills of formerly assigned peasants. Therefore, the importance of the Urals as a producer of ferrous metals is falling sharply.

Thus, one of the characteristic features of the Russian industry of the early XX century. became an extremely high degree of its territorial concentration, significant differences in its technical and economic organization. In addition, despite the domination of large-scale machine industry, small and handicraft production remained widespread, which not only provided jobs, but also played an important role in meeting the needs of the population for a wide variety of goods.

CHAPTERV... DEVELOPMENT OF ECONOMIC AND POPULATION, DEVELOPMENT OF THE TERRITORY OF THE COUNTRY (USSR and Russia) in the twentieth century.

§ 1. Formation of the territory of Russia and the USSR in 1917 - 1938.

After the victory of the Bolsheviks and Soviet power in the bloody Civil War of 1917-1921. the successor to the Russian Empire was the RSFSR - the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic, and since 1922 - the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR). A sharp weakening of the central government during the Civil War, foreign intervention and economic devastation, the strengthening of nationalism and separatism led to the disconnection from the state of a number of outlying territories.

In 1917, the government of the RSFSR recognized the state independence of Finland. According to the Russian-Finnish agreement, the Pechenga region (Petsamo), which gave it access to the Barents Sea, ceded to Finland. In the face of the country's confrontation with the "bourgeois world", the southeastern border of Finland turned out to be very dangerous, which was essentially in the suburban area of ​​St. Petersburg - Leningrad. In 1920, the RSFSR recognized the sovereignty of Estonia, Lithuania and Latvia. Under the agreements, small border Russian territories (Zanarovye, Pechory and Pytalovo) were ceded to Estonia and Latvia.

In the conditions of the Civil War and the German occupation, there was a short-term separation of Belarus and Ukraine. So, only 10 months in 1918, the Belarusian People's Republic, independent of the RSFSR, existed, formed by the nationalists of the Belarusian Rada and relying on Polish legionnaires and German troops. In its place arose the Belarusian Soviet Socialist Republic (BSSR), allied with the RSFSR. In November 1917, the nationalists of the Central Rada proclaimed the independence of the Ukrainian People's Republic. The territory of Ukraine becomes the scene of a fierce Civil War, German and Polish intervention. From April to December J918, under the conditions of the German occupation, the republican power was replaced by the hetmanate. Even later, power in Ukraine passed to the Directory, formed by the leaders of Ukrainian nationalist parties. In foreign policy, the Directory was guided by the Atlanta countries, having entered into a military alliance with Poland and declared war on the RSFSR. Finally, the military-political union of the RSFSR and the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic (Ukrainian SSR) was restored in 1919.

Establishment of borders with Poland, which restored its independence in 1918, was quite difficult. Taking advantage of the weakening of the Russian state, Poland expands its territory at the expense of the eastern lands. After the Polish-Soviet war of 1920 - 1921. Western Ukraine and Western Belarus went to Poland. In 1917, Romania annexed Bessarabia (between the Dniester and Prut rivers) inhabited by Moldovans, which was formerly part of the Russian Empire.

In 1918, in the Transcaucasus, under the conditions of the Civil War and the German, Turkish and British interventions, the Georgian, Armenian and Azerbaijan republics, independent of the RSFSR, arose. However, their internal situation was difficult, and Armenia and Azerbaijan were fighting among themselves for Karabakh. Therefore, already in 1920 - 1921. in the Transcaucasus, Soviet power and a military-political union of the Transcaucasian republics with Russia were established. The state border in Transcaucasia was determined in 1921 by an agreement between the RSFSR and Turkey, according to which Turkey renounced its claims to the northern part of Adjara with Batumi, but received the regions of Kars and Sarykamysh.

In Central Asia, along with the territories that were directly part of the RSFSR, from 1920 to 1924. there were the Bukhara People's Soviet Republic, which arose on the site of the Bukhara Emirate, and the Khorezm People's Soviet Republic, which arose on the territory of the Khiva Khanate. At the same time, the Russian border in the south of Central Asia remained unchanged, which was confirmed by the treaty with Afghanistan in 1921. In the Far East, in order to prevent a possible war with Japan in 1920, a formally independent Far Eastern Republic was formed, which after the end of the Civil War and the expulsion of the Japanese interventionists was abolished, and its territory became part of the RSFSR.

§ 2. Formation of the territory of Russia and the USSR in 1939 - 1945.

Significant changes in the western state border of the USSR took place in 1939-1940. By that time, the economic and military power of the country had grown significantly. The USSR, using the contradictions between the great powers, solves its geopolitical problems. As a result of a short (November 1939 - March 1940), but difficult war with Finland, part of the Karelian Isthmus with Vyborg, the northwestern coast of Lake Ladoga, some islands in the Gulf of Finland, the Hanko peninsula was leased to the USSR for organizing military - a naval base, which strengthened the security of Leningrad. On the Kola Peninsula, part of the Rybachy Peninsula became part of the USSR. Finland confirmed its restrictions on the deployment of armed forces on the coast of the Barents Sea, which strengthened the security of Murmansk.

In the context of the outbreak of the Second World War between Germany and the USSR, an agreement was reached on the division of Eastern Europe. In connection with the German occupation of Poland in 1939, Western Ukraine and Western Belarus, populated by Ukrainians and Belarusians, became part of the USSR, and Eastern Lithuania and Vilnius became part of the Republic of Lithuania. In 1940, Soviet troops entered the territory of the Baltic states, where Soviet power was established. Latvia, Lithuania and Estonia entered the USSR as union republics. The Russian border lands, which were transferred to Estonia and Latvia under an agreement in 1920, were returned to the RSFSR.

In 1940, at the request of the Soviet government, Romania returned Bessarabia, which was part of the Russian Empire, on the basis of which, together with the territories of the left bank of the Dniester (Moldavian ASSR), the Union Moldavian Republic was organized. In addition, Northern Bukovina (Chernivtsi region), populated by Ukrainians, became part of Ukraine. Thus, as a result of the territorial acquisitions of 1939 - 1940. (0.4 million km2, 20.1 million people) The USSR compensated for the losses of the first Soviet years.

Some change in the western and eastern borders of the USSR took place in 1944-1945. The victory of the countries of the anti-Hitler coalition in the Second World War allowed the USSR to solve a number of territorial problems. According to the peace treaty with Finland, the territory of Pechenga on the Soviet-Norwegian border again ceded to the RSFSR. By the decision of the Potsdam Conference, the territory of East Prussia was divided between Poland and the USSR. The USSR included the northern part of East Prussia with Konigsberg, on the basis of which the Kaliningrad region of the RSFSR was formed. Within the framework of mutual exchange with Poland, this state was assigned to the area populated by Poles with the center in Bialystok, and to the Ukrainian SSR - the area inhabited by Ukrainians with the center in Volodymyr Volynskiy. Czechoslovakia transferred the Transcarpathian region, populated by Ukrainians, to the USSR. In 1944, the Tuva People's Republic became part of the USSR as an autonomous region. As a result of the defeat of Japan in World War II, Russia regained South Sakhalin and the Kuril Islands. However, a peace treaty has not yet been signed between Russia and Japan, since Japan is demanding the return of the Southern Kuriles, which were part of the Hokkaido prefecture before the war. Thus, as a result of a long historical development, the Russian Empire and its successor, the USSR, were the largest countries in the world in terms of area.

§ 3. Administrative and political structure of the country at the stage of formation of the USSR

Huge economic and social upheavals during the Civil War, when a sharp outbreak of nationalism and separatism called into question the very possibility of the continued existence of a centralized Russian state, state structure found its expression in the form of a complex, multi-stage federation. In 1922 the RSFSR, the Ukrainian SSR, the BSSR and the Transcaucasian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic (comprising Georgia, Armenia and Azerbaijan) formed the Soviet Union. Moreover, in addition to Ukraine, Belarus and the republics of the Transcaucasus, all other territories of the former Russian Empire became part of the RSFSR. The Bukhara and Khorezm republics that emerged in Central Asia were in contractual relations with it.

Within the framework of such a state structure, Russia itself was a complex federation, which included autonomous republics and regions. By the time the Soviet Union was formed, the RSFSR included 8 republican autonomies: the Turkestan ASSR - in the territory of Central Asia and South Kazakhstan, the Bashkir ASSR, the Kirghiz ASSR - in the territories of Northern and Central Kazakhstan, the Tatar ASSR, the Mountain ASSR - as part of modern North Ossetia and Ingushetia, Dagestan ASSR, Crimean ASSR, Yakut ASSR. In addition, there were 12 more on the territory of the RSFSR autonomous regions who had less rights in comparison with the autonomous republics: Votskaya (Udmurt) AO, Kalmyk AO, Mari AO, Chuvash AO, Buryat-Mongol AO in Eastern Siberia, Buryat-Mongol AO of the Far East, Kabardino-Balkar AO, Komi (Zyryan) AO , Adyghe (Cherkess) AO, Karachay-Cherkess AO, Oyrat AO - on the territory of Gorny Altai, Chechen AO. The RSFSR, as autonomous regions, also included the Labor Commune of the Volga Germans and the Karelian Labor Commune.

The form of a complex, multi-stage federation that took shape in the 1920s represented a certain compromise between the need for strict centralization of power and the aspiration of numerous peoples of Russia to a national definition. Therefore, the state structure in the form of the USSR and the RSFSR made it possible to carry out the so-called "nation-building", that is, as the population grew, the economy and culture developed, the rank of autonomies was raised. At the same time, under the conditions of the party dictatorship, the country essentially retained a unitary character, since the rights of even the union republics were significantly limited by the power of the central authorities.

The boundaries of the union, autonomous republics and regions were determined not so much by the ethnic structure of the population, but by the economic gravitation of the territories. For example, during the formation of the Kazakh (Kirghiz) ASSR, Northern Kazakhstan and the Southern Urals with a predominantly Russian population were included in its composition, and the city of Orenburg was the capital at first. In addition, in the difficult process of establishing in the localities, Soviet power in the struggle against the Cossacks relied on local national forces, therefore, in the process of establishing the administrative-territorial division, the border Russian territories were included in the national formations.

§ 4. Changes in the administrative - political division of the country in the 20s and 30s

In the 1920s and 1930s, the further development of this complex system of national autonomies continued. First, the number of union republics is growing. As a result of the national demarcation in Central Asia in 1924 - 1925. the Bukhara and Khiva republics were abolished and the Turkmen SSR and the Uzbek SSR were formed. As part of the latter, the Tajik Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic was allocated. In connection with the dissolution of the Turkestan Autonomous Republic, South Kazakhstan became part of the Kazakh (old name - Kirghiz) ASSR, the capital of which was the city of Kyzyl-Orda, and Orenburg with the districts gravitating towards it was transferred to the Russian Federation. In turn, the Kara-Kalpak Autonomous District entered Kazakhstan. In addition to Kazakhstan, during this period, Kyrgyzstan remained within the Russian Federation as an autonomous region. In 1929, Tajikistan becomes a union republic. In 1932, Kara-Kalpakia entered Uzbekistan as an autonomous republic.

In subsequent years, in the process of administrative transformations, the number of union republics increased. In 1936, Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan received this status. In the same year, the Transcaucasian Federation was disbanded, and Georgia, Armenia and Azerbaijan are directly part of the Soviet Union. In 1940, the Baltic states (Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania), included in the USSR, as well as Moldavia, which arose on the territory of Bessarabia and the Moldavian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic of Ukraine, received the status of union republics. The Karelian Autonomous Republic, despite its limited demographic and economic potential, after the Soviet-Finnish war was transformed into the Karelo-Finnish SSR.

By the end of the 1930s, the number and the political status of many autonomies of the Russian Federation are increasing. In 1923 the Buryat-Mongolian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic was formed, in 1924 - the Autonomous Republic of the Volga Germans, and the North Ossetian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic and the Ingush Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic arose on the site of the Mountain Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic. In 1925, the Chuvash ASSR was formed from the autonomous region. In 1934, Mordovia and Udmurtia received the status of an autonomous republic, and in 1935 - Kalmykia. In 1936, the Kabardino-Balkarian, Mari, Chechen-Ingush, North Ossetian and Komi autonomous republics emerged.

In connection with the transformation of autonomous regions into republics, their number decreased. In 1930, the Khakass Autonomous District was allocated as part of the Krasnoyarsk Territory, and in 1934 in the Khabarovsk Territory - the Jewish Autonomous District. The latter was of an artificial nature, since it was formed in the south of the Far East, far beyond the settlement of Jews. National districts have become an important form of national self-determination of the small peoples of the North. During the 20-30s, 10 national districts were created in Russia: the Nenets NO in the Arkhangelsk Region, the Komi-Permyaksky NO in the Perm Region, the Yamalo-Nenets and Khanty-Mansi NO in the Tyumen Region, the Taimyr and Evenk NO in the Krasnoyarsk Territory, Aginsky Buryatsky NO in Chita region, Ust-Orda Buryatsky NO in Irkutsk region, Chukotsky NO in Magadan region and Koryaksky NO in Kamchatka region. As a form of local national self-government of small peoples, 250 national regions arose in the Soviet Union in the pre-war period.

§ 5. Changes in the administrative - political division of the country in the 40s and 50s

With the growth of the demographic, economic and cultural potential of the peoples of the country, the development of national self-awareness, the possibilities of a multistage system of autonomies are increasingly being exhausted. Despite harsh repressive measures, nationalism and separatism grew. If during the Civil War mass repressions by the Soviet government were applied to the Cossacks, then during the Great Patriotic War - against a number of national minorities. In 1941, the Republic of the Volga Germans was abolished, in 1943 - the Kalmyk ASSR, in 1943 - 1944. - the autonomy of the Balkars and Karachais, in 1944 the Chechen-Ingush ASSR was abolished, in 1945 - the Crimean ASSR. At the same time, the Volga Germans, Kalmyks, Balkars, Karachais, Chechens, Ingush, Crimean Tatars were forcibly deported to the eastern regions of the country. In 1957, the rights of these peoples were partially restored, but the consequences of these events have not yet been overcome. The autonomy of the Volga Germans and the Crimean Tatars was never restored. For the latter, the situation is complicated by the fact that in 1954 the Crimean region was transferred to Ukraine. In the postwar years, attention to national local self-government has noticeably weakened; since the national areas were disbanded.

§ 6. Administrative and territorial structure of the Russian regions of the country

Throughout the XX century. there have been significant changes in the administrative - territorial structure of the Russian regions of Russia. In the Bolshevik literature of the late XIX - early XX centuries. the medieval, feudal and state-bureaucratic nature of the provincial division of pre-revolutionary Russia was repeatedly noted. In the early 1920s, the State Planning Commission of the country carried out significant work and substantiated 21 economic regions:

	Central Industrial		South Industrial
	Central Black Earth		Caucasian
	Vyatka-Vetluzhsky
	Northwestern		Kuznetsk-Altai
	Northeastern		Yenisei
	Sredne-Volzhsky		Lensko-Baikalsky
	Nizhne-Volzhsky		Far Eastern
	Ural		Yakut
	West		West Kazakhstan
10 Southwest			East Kazakhstan
			Turkestan.

Allocated on the basis of economic principles, these areas were supposed to make up the grid of the country's administrative divisions. However, when allocating these areas, national interests were not taken into account. In addition, the industrialization of the country, which began in the late 1920s, and the peasantry cooperating demanded that the authorities move closer to the localities, and therefore a more fractional administrative division. The economic zoning of the country was never formalized by administrative division, and the old provinces essentially survived and transformed into modern regions and territories. In connection with the formation of new socio-economic centers, the administrative-territorial division of Russia has become even more fragmented.

§ 7. Dynamics of the population of the USSR

Throughout the twentieth century. The Soviet Union remained one of the largest countries in the world in terms of population. However, by the end of the century, as a result of wars, social experiments and a massive transition to a small family, the country completely exhausted its demographic potential, that is, the ability to self-reproduce the population. The country suffered significant demographic losses during the 1st World War and the Civil War. In 1913, 159.2 million people lived in the USSR. The military losses of Russia in the 1st World War amounted to 1.8 million people, that is, in principle, they were commensurate with the military losses of other warring countries. The country was drained of blood by the protracted Civil War and the economic devastation and famine caused by it. Drobizhev V.Z. estimated demographic losses (killed, died of wounds and diseases, emigrated) during the Civil War of about 8 million people, Yakovlev A.N. - 13 million people, and Antonov-Ovseenko A.V. considers demographic losses during the Civil War and famine of 1921 - 1922. about 16 million people.

The 1920s and 1930s were extremely difficult and contradictory in terms of the country's demographic development. On the one hand, as a result of industrialization, social transformations in agriculture, the cultural revolution, the rapid development of science and social infrastructure, the USSR, in comparison with the first post-revolutionary years, achieved significant success in economic and social development, which was reflected in a certain increase in the standard of living of the population. On the other hand, huge human sacrifices were the result of total social experiments and direct terror. According to Antonov-Ovseenko A.V., forced collectivization and the famine caused by it in 1930-1932. claimed 22 million lives, and as a result of political terror in the country for the period 1935 - 1941. killed about 19 million people. Many researchers believe that these figures are clearly overestimated. But, according to the official data of the KGB, from January 1935 to June 1941 19.8 million people were repressed in the country, of which 7 million people were executed and died under torture in the first year after their arrest. Yakovlev A.N. determines the demographic losses from repression of about 15 million people.

At the same time, in the 1920s and 1930s, the traditions of large families are widely preserved, as a result of which the population is growing quite rapidly. If in 1926 147 million people lived within the borders of the USSR, then in 1939 there were already 170.6 million people, and with the newly acquired western territories - 190.7 million people. Our country suffered huge demographic losses during the Great Patriotic War of 1941-1945. This was due to major military and political miscalculations of the then Soviet-party leadership, insufficient technical and mobilization readiness of the country, poor qualifications of military personnel who suffered during mass repressions, the policy of national genocide pursued by the fascist invaders, as well as the long-standing Russian tradition"Not to stand behind the price" of their military victories. In 1946, the Soviet authorities determined the military losses of our country to be about 7 million people, that is, at the level of Germany's losses on the Soviet front. At present, the demographic losses of the Soviet Union during the Great Patriotic War are estimated at about 30 million people. The country was drained of blood in the full sense of the word for many decades. The first post-war census of 1959 showed that 208.8 million people lived in the USSR, and there were 21 million more women.

In the 60s, broad masses of the population of the European regions of the country moved to small families, which reduced the rate of population growth. In 1970, 241.7 million people lived within the borders of the Soviet Union, and in 1979 - 262.4 million people. In terms of population, the USSR ranked third in the world, second only to China and India. The country's reproductive demographic potential declined sharply at the end of the 20th century. If for the period 1926 - 1939. the average annual population growth rate was 1.4%, for the war and post-war twenties of 1939 - 1959. - 0.5%, for 1959 -1970. - 1.5%, then for 1970 - 1979. - less than 1%.

§ 8. Major changes in the social structure of the population

Throughout the XX century. fundamental changes have taken place in the social structure of the country's population. Pre-revolutionary Russia was essentially peasant in nature, since peasants and artisans made up 66.7% of its population. The workers accounted for 14.6%, and the bourgeoisie, landowners, merchants and kulaks (rich peasants) -16.3%. A narrow social stratum was represented by employees - 2.4% of the country's population. These figures represent the whole tragedy of the country's historical development at the beginning of the 20th century. In Russia, there was not a sufficient social base for revolutionary experiments. The Bolsheviks, who created the dictatorship of their power under the guise of the dictatorship of the proletariat, and the "white" movement trying to restore pre-revolutionary Russia, had approximately the same demographic base. Therefore, the Civil War resulted in self-destruction, and social genocide began to play a prominent role in the subsequent social development.

During the Civil War, the "exploiting classes" were destroyed, and as a result of collectivization, the peasantry became a collective farm. Subsequently, changes in the social structure of the population of the USSR were caused by the industrialization of the country and the formation of its scientific and cultural potential. As a result of industrialization, the number and proportion of workers, which were officially the basis of the ruling regime, increased rapidly. In 1939, workers accounted for 33.7% of the country's population, in 1959 - 50.2%, and in 1979 - already 60%. In connection with the massive outflow of the population from the village, the number and the proportion of the collective farm peasantry declined rapidly. This process was also influenced by the wide spread of state farms, whose workers, from the standpoint of official statistics, belonged to the category of workers. In 1939, the collective farm peasantry accounted for 47.2% of the country's population, in 1959 - 31.4%, and in 1979 - only 14.9%. In the XX century. the social stratum of employees engaged in administrative, economic, clerical and control functions is rapidly growing in the country. In 1939, office workers accounted for 16.5% of the population of the USSR, in 1959 - 18.1%, in 1979 - even 25.1%. Based on the official communist ideology, state policy was aimed at creating a classless society and erasing social differences. Its result was a certain social homogeneity of society, but also a decrease in personal initiative, since entrepreneurship, education and qualifications did not give sufficient advantages in pay.

§ 9. Formation of the scientific and cultural potential of the country

During the Soviet period, a huge scientific and cultural potential was created in the country. Russia late XIX - early XX centuries. survived its "silver age" of culture. Russian literature and art have gained worldwide importance, and the development of fundamental science has brought the country well-deserved fame. A rather influential social stratum of the intelligentsia is being formed, that is, people professionally engaged in complex creative work. Even the term "intelligentsia" itself was introduced into use in Russian literature in the 1860s, and then penetrated into other languages. However, these great achievements of culture and science did not become the property of the broad masses, since most of them were illiterate. In 1913, literacy among the Russian population aged 9 and over was only 28%. Almost half of the urban population of the country was illiterate, and even 3/4 of the rural population. The continuity in the development of Russian culture and science was interrupted by the Civil War. During World War I, the creation of a massive army required a drastic expansion of the officer corps. The educated people drafted into the army put on officer's shoulder straps, which in the conditions of the revolution opposed them to the predominant proletarian-peasant mass of the population. A significant part of the pre-revolutionary intelligentsia was hostile to the idea of ​​a violent revolutionary transformation of the country, therefore it was destroyed during the Civil War, emigrated from the country or even was expelled from it.

In the face of confrontation with the "bourgeois world" in the Soviet Union, in essence, a significant scientific and cultural potential was created anew, and a fairly significant layer of the "popular" intelligentsia was quickly formed. In the pre-war years, one of the directions of its formation was the "cultural revolution", during which mass illiteracy was quickly eliminated. In 1939, illiteracy among the urban population accounted for only 6%, and among rural residents - about 16%. In the post-war period, the country reached the level of universal literacy. Thus, in 1979, illiteracy among urban dwellers aged 9-49 made up only 0.1%, and among rural residents - 0.3%. Thus, elementary illiteracy was preserved only among a small group of old and sick people.

During the 20th century, the general cultural level of the population has grown significantly, which can be indirectly judged by the proportion of people with higher and secondary education. So, if in 1939 90% of the population had only primary education, then in 1979 - about 36%. On the contrary, the proportion of people with secondary education during this period increased from 10% to 55%. At the same time, in recent years, in connection with the problem of financing education, the question of an excessively high educational standard has been raised, which does not correspond to reality. Even in 1979, higher and incomplete higher education had only 15% of the country's population. In addition, the discrepancy between the educational level and the culture of the population is clearly visible. On this basis, a powerful system of training highly qualified and scientific personnel of world importance, especially in the field of fundamental research and the military-industrial complex, was created in the country.

§ 10. The main trends in the urbanization of the country

Despite the rapid development of industrial production in the late XIX - early XX centuries. pre-revolutionary Russia remained predominantly a rural country. In 1913, only 18% of its population lived in the cities of Russia. Civil war, famine and devastation caused the outflow of the population from the cities, so in 1923 the share of the urban population dropped to 16.1%. The capital cities found themselves in a particularly difficult situation. In 1920, only 1.1 million people lived in Moscow, and the population of St. Petersburg decreased by half a million.

The rapid growth of the urban population of the USSR began in the late 1920s in connection with the industrialization of the country and the collectivization of agriculture. Industrialization led to an ever-increasing demand for labor from the rapidly growing industrial production of cities, and collectivization tore the peasants from the land and pushed them to the cities. Already in 1940, the cities concentrated one third of the country's population. At the beginning of the 60s, the number of urban and rural residents became equal, and at the end of the 70s, more than 60% of the country's population lived in cities. During the Soviet period, a radical change in the very structure of urban settlement took place. If in the mid-1920s the predominant part of the townspeople lived in small and medium-sized cities, then at the end of the 70s most of them already accounted for large cities. The concentrated nature of urban settlement resulted in the rapid formation of large-city agglomerations, that is, local systems of large cities and their suburban areas. The disproportionate urban settlement of the country has become a significant public problem. The authorities have repeatedly declared a policy of limiting the growth of large cities and intensifying the development of small and medium-sized cities, but they did not have real success.

§ 11. Inter-district migration of the population and the development of the country's territory in the pre-war years

In the twentieth century. the process of further settlement and economic development of the country gained enormous scope. Unlike the previous century, migration was mainly industrial in nature and pursued the task of developing the country's natural resources. In the 1920s and 1930s, most European regions became suppliers of labor resources for the eastern and northern regions of the Russian Federation. The total number of migrants to the eastern regions of the country (together with the Urals) was about 4.7-5 million people. Among the eastern regions, the Far East, Eastern Siberia, and the Kuznetsk Basin were distinguished by the highest intensity of the migration inflow. Rapidly growing cities - the industrial centers of the Urals - have also become major centers of migration attraction. At the same time, forced migration became widespread. The grim irony of the Soviet period is the fact that many of the "construction sites of socialism" were created by the hands of prisoners. A characteristic feature of the 1920s and 1930s is the massive migration inflows of the Russian-speaking population to the national regions of Central Asia, Kazakhstan and the Caucasus, which was caused by the need to provide them with highly qualified specialists in the context of the ongoing industrialization and cultural revolution.

In the European part of the USSR, a massive migration inflow of the population took place in those economic regions and their industrial centers, which became the nuclei of the country's industrialization. The rapidly emerging Moscow urban agglomeration, which received more migrants than all the eastern regions combined, has become the largest core of the migration attraction. Leningrad with its suburban area was an equally large center of migration attraction. The massive outflow of rural residents from the agricultural regions of Northern Russia constituted, as it were, the second act of the drama of the Russian Non-Black Earth Region. The third major core of the migration attraction was the Donbass and the Dnieper region, which formed as the main coal and metallurgical base of the country. In addition to the North Russian agricultural regions, a massive outflow of the population occurred from the Central Black Earth Region, the Right-Bank Volga Region and North-Eastern Ukraine, where a significant surplus of labor resources was formed in the pre-revolutionary period.

§ 12. Interdistrict population migration and development of the country's territory in the post-war years

Interregional features of the migration movement of the population in 1939 - 1959 were caused both by the consequences of the Great Patriotic War and by the tasks of developing new natural resources in the East. In the initial period of the war, about 25 million people were evacuated from the western regions of the country, which were under the threat of occupation. This population temporarily settled in the Urals, the Volga region, the southern part of Western Siberia, Northern and Central Kazakhstan, and to a lesser extent in Eastern Siberia and Central Asia. After the end of the war, the overwhelming majority of the population returned to their homes, but some of it took root in new places.

In general, for the intercensal period 1939 - 1959. a total of 8-10 million people moved from the European part to the Asian part (together with the Urals). The Urals, Kazakhstan and Western Siberia were distinguished by the highest intensity of the migration inflow. The rural population of this region increased in the process of mass development of virgin and fallow lands, which was undertaken in 1954-1960. for a radical solution to the grain problem. From the European regions of the country, a powerful migration inflow continued to the Moscow, Leningrad agglomerations and Donbass. In the post-war period, a significant influx of Russian-speaking migrants rushed to the Baltic States, which was associated with the settlement of the Kaliningrad region and the need for rapid industrial development of the Baltic republics, which had a profitable economic geographic location and a developed industrial and social infrastructure.

In the 60s, the Asian regions of the Russian Federation (with the exception of the Far East) began to lose population in the process of migration exchange with the European territories of the country. This was due to the fact that the traditional suppliers of the population to Siberia (Central, Central Black Earth and Volgo-Vyatka regions, Belarus) have exhausted their mobile labor resources. In addition, serious mistakes were made when planning the living standards of Siberians. Therefore, skilled workers from Siberian cities replenished the densely populated and labor-abundant regions of the European part of the USSR, and the urban population of Siberia, in turn, grew at the expense of people from local villages. The massive migration outflow of rural residents has largely undermined the agriculture of Siberia, which worsened the food supply of the townspeople. The bulk of migrants at large construction sites in Siberia did not stay in place.

At the same time, there was a polarization of the Siberian regions themselves in terms of the nature of the migration movement. In connection with the development of the oil and gas complex in Western Siberia, the Tyumen region, especially its region of the Middle Ob region, has become a zone of intensive and massive migration inflow of the population for a long time. In general, the Russian Federation has become a major supplier of labor resources for other union republics, as a result of which for 1959 -1970. lost about 1.7 million people. This process led to a further increase in the proportion of the Russian-speaking population in many republics of the Soviet Union. The highest intensity of the migration inflow was the entire southern strip of economic regions from Moldova, the Black Sea Ukraine, the North Caucasus to Kazakhstan and Central Asia.

In the 70s, there was a significant reduction in interregional migration flows. This was based on both demographic factors - a decrease in the birth rate, a decrease in the number of young people in the main regions of the migration outflow, and socio-economic reasons - the convergence of the living standards of townspeople and rural residents, the main regions of migration outflow and inflow, the increasing demand for labor resources as a result of further extensive economic development of the country. As a result of a whole system of measures in the second half of the 70s, it was possible to form a migration redistribution of the population in favor of the Siberian regions of the Russian Federation. In addition to the continuing influx of the population into the oil and gas complex of Western Siberia, the settlement and economic development of the Baikal-Amur Mainline route is taking place. However, in the 70s, most regions of Siberia were still losing their population, and the most difficult situation was in the agricultural regions of Western Siberia.

A characteristic feature of the 70s is a powerful influx of population into the Moscow and Leningrad agglomerations, which in terms of population growth rates outstripped not only the European part, but the entire Russian Federation as a whole! The downside of this phenomenon was the massive outflow of the rural population from the Russian Non-Black Earth Region, as a result of which the disintegration of the historically established system of rural settlements began on its territory. The economic side of this process was the massive reduction in the area of ​​agricultural land in the historical center of Russia as a result of waterlogging, overgrowing with forest and bushes.

§ 13. Formation of the system of planned socialist economy

In connection with the victory of the Bolsheviks and Soviet power throughout the twentieth century. in the USSR, a special type of economy was formed and developed - the "socialist economy". It was based on state ownership of the means of production, including land. Back in the period of the Great October Socialist Revolution and in the first post-revolutionary period, banks, large-scale industry, transport were nationalized, that is, taken by the state, and a state monopoly of foreign trade was introduced. The landowners' lands were confiscated, the nationalization of all land was proclaimed, which was transferred to the peasants free of charge for economic use.

Further nationalization of the economy took place during the Civil War. The policy of "war communism" led to the nationalization of already medium and partly small industry, the introduction of labor service for the entire working-age population, the displacement of domestic trade in food appropriation - a system of compulsory alienation of products from peasant farms, the introduction of state regulation of handicraft production. The result was an almost complete ousting of market mechanisms from the sphere of economic relations and their replacement by administrative-command methods of economic management.

After the end of the Civil War, within the framework of the so-called "New Economic Policy" - NEP, food appropriation was replaced by a food tax, and the economic relationship between town and village began to be determined by the system of market relations. However, already at the end of the 1920s, due to the continuous collectivization of agriculture, market relations were again sharply limited, and the process of stateization encompassed not only state farms as state enterprises, but also collective farms - collective farms. The process of nationalization of the economy intensified sharply during the Great Patriotic War, which required the mobilization of all the country's resources in order to preserve its national independence. Some strengthening of the role of commodity-money relations in the economic leadership of the country has occurred in the past 30 years, but market levers of economic management only supplemented the existing centralized administrative-command system.

The planned socialist economy was focused primarily on solving national problems, sometimes to the detriment of social problems, regional and local interests. The principles of the territorial organization of the economy were formed not only on the basis of real economic and political practice, but also taking into account the theory of Marxist-Leninist social science. Among them, the following should be noted:

1) an even distribution of productive forces throughout the country;

2) bringing industry closer to sources of raw materials, fuel and energy resources and areas of consumption of products;

3) overcoming significant socio-economic, cultural and everyday differences between town and country;

4) acceleration of economic and cultural development formerly backward national areas;

5) the correct territorial division of labor on the basis of specialization and comprehensive development of the economy of the economic regions and union republics of the USSR;

6) rational use of natural conditions and resources;

7) strengthening the country's defense capability;

8) planned international socialist division of labor.

These principles are based on the idea of ​​the potential superiority of the socialist planned economy, oriented with the aim of systematically raising the level and quality of life of Soviet people at increasing labor productivity and achieving an optimal territorial organization of the economy. Although in each specific case one can find quite a few examples of confirming these principles, however, on the whole, they have an artificially bookish character and do not reflect the essence of the processes of the territorial organization of the country's economy throughout the 20th century. For example, one can hardly speak seriously about "even distribution of productive forces", about "rational use of natural conditions and resources," and "strengthening the country's defense capability", that is, the development of the military-industrial complex (MIC), was brought to a hypertrophied absurdity, since The military-industrial complex has depleted the country's resources. The "planned international socialist division of labor" was artificial and concealed deep economic contradictions between the former socialist countries.

§ 14. Industrialization of the country and the development of Soviet industry

Throughout the twentieth century. The USSR became one of the largest industrial powers. This was the result of the industrialization policy implemented in the country, which led to a radical reconstruction of the entire economy. Therefore, mechanical engineering is becoming the leading industry. During the years of the two pre-war five-year plans, the automobile industry, tractor building, and combine building were essentially re-created, and the volume of industrial equipment and machine tools produced increased sharply. In conditions of political and military confrontation with the surrounding capitalist world, by the beginning of the 40s, a fairly powerful military industry was created in the USSR, including the production of tanks and aircraft. The main part of machine-building enterprises arose in the old industrial regions of the country (Central region, North-West, Ural and Donetsk-Pridneprovsky region), which had a highly qualified workforce. The largest machine-building centers of the country are the Moscow and Leningrad agglomerations, where a powerful scientific and project infrastructure has been formed.

The massive development of mechanical engineering required a sharp increase in metal production. In the European part of the country, in the old regions of metallurgy and mechanical engineering, factories producing high-quality steel were built. The second coal and metallurgical base of the country was created in the Urals and Western Siberia. New metallurgical plants that arose in these areas formed the "Ural-Kuznetsk Combine" and used the iron ores of the Urals and the coking coal of the Kuzbass. The production of aluminum and nickel was established in the country. In addition to the Urals, a powerful copper industry has developed in Kazakhstan, and lead production is also in Altai and Central Asia, zinc plants in the Donbass and Kuzbass.

In the pre-war years, a powerful fuel and energy base emerged in the country. Although the Donbass remained the main area for coal mining, coal mining in the Kuzbass and the Karaganda basin grew rapidly, and the development of the Pechora basin began. Due to its proximity to consumers, the importance of brown coal in the Moscow region has grown. Great changes have taken place in the geography of oil production. In addition to Apsheron and Grozny, the area between the Volga and the Urals, the "Second Baku", began to acquire more and more importance. In the pre-war period, the development of the richest gas resources of the Volga region began. The industrialization of the country was carried out on the basis of the priority development of the electric power industry. On the basis of the GOELRO plans and the pre-war five-year plans, a whole system of "district" thermal and hydroelectric power plants was built.

Huge industrial engineering The 20s and 30s, carried out due to the rigid centralization of all the country's resources, allowed the USSR to achieve economic independence. In terms of industrial production, the country took the 2nd place in the world. At the same time, the result of industrialization was the hypertrophied development of heavy industry to the detriment of industries working for the consumption of the population, which could not but affect the standard of living. In addition, one of the components of the economic success of the pre-war five-year plans was the widespread use of cheap forced labor, and the GULAG acted as one of the largest economic departments in the country, conducting the development of new regions. During the 1920s and 1930s, there was a significant shift in industrial production to the East, to sources of raw materials.

During the Great Patriotic War, the foundations of the world's largest military-industrial complex were laid in the USSR. The entire economy of the country was rebuilt for the needs of the front. About 1,300 large industrial enterprises were relocated to the East from the western regions, which had undergone fascist occupation, which were located mainly in the Urals, Western Siberia, the Volga region and Kazakhstan.

In the postwar years, the political and military confrontation between the USSR and the leading capitalist countries triggered an arms race in connection with the development of nuclear and missile weapons. This led to an even greater integration of the military-industrial complex with the country's economic complex, especially mechanical engineering. In connection with the formation of the CMEA "a" - an economic union of former socialist countries, as well as close ties with many developing countries, the Soviet Union became one of the largest exporters of weapons and engineering products.

Over the past forty years, fundamental changes have taken place in the country's fuel and energy base. As a result, one of the most powerful fuel and energy complexes in the world was created. In the 50s and 60s, extensive construction of large hydroelectric power plants was launched on the Volga, Kama, Dnieper, and rivers of Siberia. At the same time, dozens of the largest thermal power plants were built. Since the second half of the 70s, the deficit of electric energy in the European part of the country began to be covered by the construction of powerful nuclear power plants.

The structure and geography of the fuel industry in the Soviet Union has changed significantly. Thus, the coal industry, despite the growing volumes of coal production, lost its leading position in the country's fuel balance to the oil and gas industry. In connection with the development of coal resources and the high cost of Donetsk coal, the share of the Donetsk basin in the all-Union coal mining has dropped significantly and the role of the coal basins in Siberia and Kazakhstan has increased. By the beginning of the 70s, oil took the first place in the country's fuel balance. This became possible not only as a result of the development of oil production in the area of ​​"Second Baku", but also in connection with the massive development of the gigantic oil resources of the Middle Ob region. Therefore, if in the mid-60s the main part of the oil produced was in the Volga-Ural region, then by the beginning of the 70s more than half of the all-Union oil production came from Western Siberia. In the country's fuel balance, the importance of natural gas was rapidly growing, which at the end of the 70s pushed coal to third place. If in the 60s the Volga region, the North Caucasus and Ukraine were the main regions for natural gas production, then in recent decades the north of the Tyumen region, Komi and Central Asia have become its main producers. A vast network of pipelines has been built to transport oil and natural gas in the USSR.

However, despite such an impressive development of the fuel and energy industry, the European regions of the Soviet Union, still concentrating the bulk of the country's industrial capacities in recent decades, experienced a shortage of energy resources. Therefore, the country's economic policy was focused, firstly, on limiting the construction of fuel and energy-intensive industries in the European part and in the Urals, secondly, on more intensive use of the fuel and energy resources of the eastern regions, and, thirdly, on creating a single energy systems of the country and the massive transportation of fuel from the eastern regions to the European part of the country.

In the post-war period, a powerful metallurgical base was formed in the Soviet Union. Along with technical reconstruction and an increase in production volumes, significant new construction was launched in the already established metallurgical centers. The development of the ore resources of the KMA and Karelia has led to an increase in the production of ferrous metals in the historical center of the country. Due to new construction, the capacities of ferrous metallurgy in Western Siberia and Kazakhstan have sharply increased. In connection with the massive construction of power plants and the production of cheap electrical energy in Siberia, large-scale production of electro-intensive non-ferrous metals, especially aluminum, arose.

Among the priorities of the economic development of the Soviet Union in recent decades was the chemical industry, especially the production of fertilizers, plant protection products, chemical fibers and threads, synthetic resins and rubbers, and plastics. At the same time, the structure of the country's industrial production remained deformed as before. On the periphery of state interests, the food, textile, footwear, and clothing industries remained. They received insufficient capital investment, which intensified their ever-increasing technical backwardness and low quality of their products. The problem of providing the population to some extent was solved by massive imports of food and consumer goods in exchange for the ever-increasing export of energy, non-ferrous and rare metals, timber and other raw materials.

§ 15. Collectivization of agriculture and its development during the Soviet period

Throughout the twentieth century. huge changes have taken place in the country's agriculture. In 1929 - 1933. complete collectivization of the village was carried out. Instead of small individual peasant farms, collective farms became the main organizational form of agricultural production, in the process of creating which the land and all the main means of production were socialized, and only small household plots, residential buildings, small implements and a limited number of livestock were left in the personal property of the collective farmers. Already in the first years of Soviet power, state enterprises - state farms - emerged on the basis of nationalized landlord estates, which became large producers of agricultural products and mastered the latest agricultural technology.

The complete collectivization of agriculture, both in terms of methods of implementation, and in terms of economic and social consequences, had a contradictory character. On the one hand, it was largely carried out by force, since it was accompanied by dispossession. Were forcibly liquidated well-to-do (kulak), and sometimes middle peasant peasant farms, whose property went to the collective farms, and the "kulak families" were deported to the northern regions. Thus, the country's agriculture lost a significant part of the industrious commodity producers. Livestock breeding suffered very sharply, since peasants slaughtered cattle en masse before joining collective farms. On the other hand, the social transformations carried out guaranteed the state to receive the minimum required amount of food, created conditions for a rapid change in the technical base of agriculture through the widespread use of tractors and other machines. Although the cooperation of agriculture has sharply reduced the country's grain export opportunities, it has made it possible to redistribute funds for industrialization due to a decrease in the standard of living of rural residents. Collective farms imposed from above ultimately superimposed on the age-old traditions of the peasant community and acquired a stable character as a form of survival for rural residents even in extremely difficult, extreme conditions.

The agriculture of the USSR in the pre-war period retained the possibilities of extensive development due to the expansion of sown areas. For 1913 - 1937 the sown area of ​​the country increased by 31.9 million hectares, or 30.9%. Although almost half of the newly developed lands were in the eastern regions, the process of plowing both the old-developed territories of the country's historical center and the regions of the steppe European South continued. The most important branch of agriculture was still grain production. The formation of new grain regions in the East of the country (South Urals, West Siberia and North Kazakhstan) was of great importance. Among grain crops, wheat acquired the main importance, pushing rye to second place. Compared to pre-revolutionary Russia, the sown area of ​​wheat has advanced in the northern and eastern directions.

The development of the country's agriculture during the pre-war period was due to the wide distribution of industrial crops. The area under sugar beet has grown dramatically. In addition to Ukraine, whose share in the sown area decreased from 82.6% in 1913 to 66.9% in 1940, and the Central Black Earth Region, sugar beets began to be grown in the Volga region and Western Siberia. The sown area under sunflower has grown even more significantly - by 3.5 times. In addition to the North Caucasus, the Central Black Earth Region and the Volga region, sunflower began to be widely sown in Ukraine, Moldova and Kazakhstan. The cultivated areas under fiber flax have grown. In Central Asia and Eastern Azerbaijan, the cultivation of cotton on irrigated lands became more and more widespread. Due to the growth of the urban population, the production of potatoes and vegetables increased. In contrast to agriculture as a whole, a crisis situation developed in animal husbandry, which by the beginning of the 40s had not recovered from the consequences of forced cooperation.

In the mid-1950s, a program for the development of virgin fallow lands was implemented in the USSR to radically solve the grain problem in the USSR. For 1953 - 1958 the sown area of ​​the country increased by 1/4 or 38.6 million hectares. The development of virgin lands led to a significant expansion of grain crops, primarily wheat in Kazakhstan, Western Siberia, the South Urals, the Volga region and the North Caucasus. At the expense of virgin grain, the country was able for some time not only to meet its domestic needs, but also became an exporter of grain for some socialist and developing countries. The formation of the second large food base in the East of the country made it possible to deepen the specialization of agriculture in the old-developed regions. The expansion of cultivated areas under industrial crops continued. As a result of large-scale land reclamation, the area of ​​irrigated land has grown sharply. In Central Asia, on their basis, the cotton monoculture was finally formed. The consequence was not only a sharp degradation of the natural environment (wide secondary soil salinization, pollution of rivers with sewage from the fields, destruction of the Aral Sea), but also a decrease in the area under garden and food crops, which could not but affect the quality of nutrition of the indigenous population. On the basis of irrigated agriculture, a significant production of rice arose in the North Caucasus, southern Kazakhstan and Central Asia, in Primorye.

The development of virgin lands made it possible to expand the area under fodder crops in the old-developed regions of the country, which created conditions for the development of productive livestock raising. Such a fodder crop as corn has become widespread. Since the 1960s, oil exports have made it possible to carry out massive purchases of feed grains and animal feed. In the field of animal husbandry, a program for the construction of large animal husbandry complexes was implemented, which made it possible, on a new technological basis, to create a large-scale production of animal products.

§ 16. Formation of a unified transport system and a unified national economic complex of the country

Throughout the twentieth century. in the Soviet Union, a unified transport system of the country was formed. Already in the 1920s and 1930s, a radical reconstruction of railway transport was carried out and about 12.5 thousand new railway lines were built. They provided more reliable and shorter transport links of Donbass, central and north-western regions of the country, additionally connected the Center, Ural, Kuzbass, Central Kazakhstan. Of particular importance was the construction of the Turkestan-Siberian railway, which provided a direct route from Siberia to Central Asia. A lot of work has been done to reconstruct inland waterways. In 1933 the White Sea-Baltic Canal was put into operation, in 1937 - the Moscow-Volga Canal. Already in the 30s, the main regions of the country were connected with each other by airlines.

A fairly large railway construction was carried out during the Great Patriotic War. 1940 to 1945 annually put into operation 1.5 thousand km of new railways. Thus, a railway exit from Arkhangelsk to Murmansk was built. The Kotlas - Vorkuta railway gave Pechora coal an outlet to the country's enterprises during the period when Donbass was occupied. The railway along the middle and lower reaches of the Volga provided the operation of the Red Army at Stalingrad. The Kizlyar-Astrakhan railway has reduced the output of Baku oil to the places of consumption.

Large-scale railway construction began in the post-war period in the eastern regions of the country. The South Siberian railway, which passed through North Kazakhstan, significantly relieved the burden of the old Trans-Siberian railway. The Central Siberian Railway passed through the main tracts of virgin lands. Significant railway construction began in the 60s and 70s in connection with the development of the resources of Western Siberia. Among the great construction projects of recent decades is the Baikal-Amur Mainline (1974 - 1984), which provided an additional transit outlet to the Pacific Ocean through Eastern Siberia, in the long term becoming the base for the development of a vast, but harsh, vast region rich in natural resources.

In the post-war period, in connection with the massive development of oil and gas fields in the Soviet Union, the world's longest network of oil and gas pipelines was created, which linked production areas and consumption centers, and also ensured wide export supplies of these energy resources across the western borders of the country. In recent decades, road freight turnover has grown rapidly, which has become increasingly competing with railways in the transport of goods over short distances, since it ensured their delivery from place to place. The country was rapidly expanding the network of hard-surface roads, the total length of which in the early 70s was about 0.5 million km. However, in terms of the quality of roads and their density, the USSR was significantly inferior European countries... Quite a lot of attention was paid to the construction of new inland waterways. 1945-1952 the Volga-Don Canal was built, in 1964 the reconstruction of the Volga-Baltic deep-water route was completed, replacing the outdated Mariinsky system. In connection with the development of Siberia, new river ports were built on its largest rivers.

The vast length of the country and low domestic prices for petroleum products have led to the widespread development of air transport in recent decades, which took a significant part of the passengers away from the railways. A dense network of airfields (practically at every republican, regional and regional center) made it possible to contact any corner of the country in a matter of hours. To ensure external economic relations in the 60s and 70s, a large sea fleet was built. In the Azov-Black Sea, Baltic basin-

The result of a rather long Soviet development was the formation of the Unified National Economic Complex (ENHK) of the USSR as a complex, integral, dynamically developing and multi-level supersystem. The ENHK of the USSR was formed in the process of centralized management of the nationalized economy in conditions of limited functions of monetary circulation, when prices did not reflect either the real costs of producing goods, or the demand for them. Therefore, the use of the laws and principles of planned economic development made it possible to operate a very complex system of redistribution of national income between enterprises, industries, republics and regions, which led to the appearance of a certain proportionality and balance of the national economy.

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HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY

branch ist. knowledge, studying geography ist. the past of humanity. I. g. Has the same basic. sections that the geography of modernity, that is, it breaks down into: 1) ist. physical geography, 2) I. g. of the population, 3) I. g. x-va, 4) ist. politician geography. The last section includes external geography. and int. borders, the location of cities and fortresses, as well as ist. events, that is, the way of military. campaigns, carto-schemes of battles, geography of bunks. movement, etc. Phys. geography has changed relatively little over the history. period, i.e. for several. the last millennia. But for human development. societies are important and those small changes from the point of view of the general characteristics of the landscape, to-rye changed the living conditions of a person. These include changes in river currents, the disappearance of oases, the emergence of irrigation. systems, the disappearance of forests, many others. species of wild animals, etc. The study of these conditions of human life and the changes that have taken place is included in the section ist. physical geography.

When studying I. of any country, the researcher usually has to focus his attention to hl. arr. on the last three of the above sections of I. g., in other words to deal with historical and economic. (population and economy) and historical and political. geography. In the field of imperialism, the researcher faces problems of a general nature (studying changes in the economic and political geography of a country or part of it over a given long period) and private (for example, tracing the growth of the territory of the Moscow principality in 14-15 centuries or changes in the distribution of the population in the United States in the 18-20 centuries, etc.). When studying historical and economic. and historical and political. geography of any country for a long time. time the researcher, guided by the general periodization, must recreate the picture of the development of its economic. and polit. geography. So, for example, researching I. g. Russia during the time from the end. 18th century until Oct. revolution, it is necessary to study the main. elements of economical and polit. geography at stake. 18 century, to establish the population, its nat. composition, its location, indicate the boundaries of which states and how exactly the investigated territory was divided. (what was included in the borders of the Russian Empire, what was within the boundaries of others and which states), what was the internal. adm. dividing this space. The hardest part of the challenge is showing the economics. geography of the studied territory. - setting the level of development produces. forces, their placement. After that, the analysis of changes in the basic is carried out. elements of economical. and polit. geography in pre-reform. and post-reform. periods in order to obtain in this way comparable pictures at the time of the abolition of serfdom in Russia and by 1917.

The described understanding of the subject of I. g. Is accepted in the Sov. ist. and geographic. sciences. In the pre-revolutionary. Russian historiography did not have a single generally accepted understanding of the subject of imperialism, but in geography and historiography there was capitalist. there are no countries even today. The most common in Russian. pre-revolutionary. scientific. lit-re was a view, to-ry task I. g. saw in the definition of political. borders of the past and the location of ancient cities and populations. points, in the indication of places ist. events and in the description of changes in the distribution of ethnic groups on the territory. of the country under study. Such an understanding of the subject of I. g. Followed from a view of the subject of ist. science - its main. the task was considered to be the study of the history of political. events and, above all, a description of wars and their consequences for the borders of the state, a story about governments. activities, and often the personal life of monarchs, their ministers and other government officials. To make the story better understood by the reader, when describing wars, it is necessary to show the movement of troops, places and the course of battles; the narrative about the activities of the rulers became clearer for the reader when indicating changes in the borders of the country and its internal. adm. division, etc. Hence the definition of I. g. as an auxiliary arose. disciplines, along with paleography, heraldry, metrology, chronology. I. g. In the sense of it, as indicated at the beginning of the article, can answer the historian and the questions that I. g. Answered before and, therefore, can perform the functions of an auxiliary. ist. discipline. But its sovr. content has expanded significantly as a result of the expansion of the content of ist. science, edges now pays special attention to the study of socio-economic. processes. I. g. Became a branch of ist. knowledge studying geography. side ist. process, without which the idea of ​​it will not be complete and clear.

Historical and geographical. research is based on the same sources, to-rye serve as the basis of ist. science. Sources containing information in geography are of particular value for I. g. section (for example, "revisions" of the population in Russia in the 18th - 1st half of the 19th centuries, census and scribe books, etc.). Legislative monuments, with the exception of decisions on the borders of the adm. units, contain little information, to-rye can be used by I. g. Archeol is of great importance for I. g. sources, especially for research economical. geography of the past. For the study of I. g. Of the population, the data of toponymy and anthropology are important. The names of rivers, lakes, and other geographic objects given by peoples who once lived on some territories are preserved even after these peoples left their former habitats. Toponymy helps here to determine the nat. belonging to this population. Settlers in new places of residence often give their settlements, and sometimes small, previously unnamed rivers, names brought from their old homeland. For example, after Pereyaslavl (now Pereyaslav-Khmelnitsky), located on the Trubezh River, which flows into the Dnieper, into the North-East. Rus appeared Pereyaslavl-Ryazan (now Ryazan) and Pereyaslavl-Zalessky. Both of them lie on the rivers, which also received the name Trubezh. This indicates that both of these cities were founded by settlers from the South. Rus. In this case, toponymy helps to outline the paths of migration flows. Anthropological data make it possible to determine the formation of racially mixed peoples. On Wednesday. Asia mountain Tajiks on anthropological. type belong to the Caucasian race, the Kirghiz to the Mongoloid, and the Uzbeks and Turkmens have features of both. At the same time, Taj. lang. belongs to the Iranian, and Kirg., Uzbek. and Turkm. - to the number of Turkic. lang. This confirms the information in the letters. sources on the introduction of nomadic Turks into agriculture. oases Cf. Asia on Wed. century. I. g. Uses first of all ist. method, as well as ist. science in general. Methods of these disciplines are used in the processing of data from archeology, toponymy and anthropology.

The beginning of the formation of I. g. As a separate discipline dates back to the 16th century. It owes its origin to two major ist. phenomena of the 15-16 centuries. - humanism and great geography. discoveries. During the Renaissance, educated people exhibited excludes. interest in antiquity, saw it as an example of culture, and Op. ancient geographers were considered as sources for modern geography. Great geographers. opening late 15 - early. 16th century showed the difference between the concepts of the Universe of antiquity. authors and new knowledge gained about it. Interest in classical antiquity prompted primarily to deal with the geography of antiquity. the world. The first fundamental work in the field of I. g. Was an atlas of the ancient world, compiled by Flam. geographer 2nd floor. 16th century A. Ortelius, as an appendix to his own atlas of sovr. peace to him. Ortelius accompanied his maps with text, in which he briefly described the countries of the ancient world depicted on the maps. He, having declared "geography through the eyes of history," thereby introduced geography into the circle of auxiliary. ist. disciplines. But Ortelius did not know how to be critical of the information of antiquity. authors, based on Op. to-rykh he compiled his atlas. This shortcoming of it was overcome in the next 17th century. prof. Leiden un-that in Holland by F. Kluver, to-ry wrote two works on I. g - ist. geography dr. Italy and East. geography dr. Germany. The leaders of the French have done a lot for the development of I. g. t. n. erudite ist. schools of the 17th-18th centuries and French. geographers of this time JBD "Anvil and others. Along with the geography of antiquity, they also studied the geography of the Middle Ages. From the second half of the 19th century, the content of general historical works expanded by including facts of social The content of the geography of the city is slowly expanding with a delay, too, which has also begun to deal with the socioeconomic geography of the past. An historical geography of England before ad 1800 ", Camb., 1936) Maps on the history of the economy and culture are increasingly being introduced into historical atlases.

In Russia the founder of I. was V. N. Tatishchev. I. N. Boltin paid much attention to her. In the 2nd floor. 19th century worked a lot in the field I. N. P. Barsov, who studied the geography of Kievan Rus. In the beginning. 20th century begins teaching I. in St. Petersburg. archaeological in-those (read S. M. Seredonin and A. A. Spitsyn) and in Moscow. un-those (read by M.K.Lyubavsky). After Oct. revolution MK Lyubavsky published a study "Formation of the main state. Territorial Great Russian nationality. Settlement and unification of the center" (Leningrad, 1929).

Sov. historians have created a number of profound studies on the geography of the city. Among them, the foundation stands out. M. N. Tikhomirov's work "Russia in the XVI century." (M., 1962). For I. g. Dr. The study of A. N. Nasonov "" Russian land "and the formation of the territory of the Old Russian state" (Moscow, 1951) is of great importance in Russia. Valuable Works, Ch. arr. on historical cartography, belong to I.A.Golubtsov. Saturated historical and geographical. research material by E. I. Goryunova, A. I. Kopanev and M. V. Vitov. V.K. Yatsunsky published works on the history of the development of I. g., On its subject and tasks, and research on specific fatherlands. I. g. Investigation. work on the fatherlands. I. g. Leads the department I. g. And history geography. knowledge Mosk. branch of the All-Union Geographical. about-va, which published three collections of articles on this discipline, and a group of I. g., formed in the Institute of History of the USSR Academy of Sciences at the end. 1962. The course of I. g. Is read in Moscow. historical and archival institute and in Moscow. un-those.

Lit .: Yatsunsky V.K., Historical. geography. The history of its origin and development in the XIV - XVIII centuries, M., 1955; him, Subject and tasks ist. geography, "Historian-Marxist", 1941, No 5; him, Historical and Geographical. moments in the works of V.I. Lenin, in collection: IZ, (t.) 27, (M.), 1948; Tikhomirov M. H., "List of Russian cities far and near", in the same place, (t.) 40, (M.), 1952; Goryunova E. M., Ethnich. history of the Volga-Oka interfluve, M., 1961; Kopanev A.I., The history of land tenure in the Belozersk Territory. XV - XVI centuries, M.-L., 1951; Bitov M.V., Historical and Geographical. sketches of Zaonezhie of the 16th - 17th centuries, M., 1962; "Questions of geography". Sat, v. 20, 31, 50, M., 1950-60; Essays on the history of ist. science in the USSR, v. 1-3, M., 1955-1964 (chapters on the history of historical geography in Russia).

V.K. Yatsunsky. Moscow.

Soviet Historical Encyclopedia. - M .: Soviet encyclopedia. Ed. E. M. Zhukova. 1973-1982 .

See what "HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY" is in other dictionaries:

Historical geography is a historical discipline that studies history through the "prism" of geography; it is also the geography of any territory at a certain historical stage of its development. The hardest part of the task of historical geography ... ... Wikipedia

The field of knowledge at the intersection of history and geography; geography of any territory at a certain stage of its development ... Big Encyclopedic Dictionary

historical geography- Studying the past states of the geographic environment (over the historical period) and their changes, including anthropogenic ones, over time ... Geography Dictionary

1) the field of knowledge at the intersection of history and geography; geography of any territory at a certain stage of its development. Studies the changes that have taken place in the geographic shell of the Earth. 2) Special historical discipline, complex historical ... ... encyclopedic Dictionary

Studies the physical, economic and political geography of the past of a particular country or territory; see Historical Geography ... Great Soviet Encyclopedia

The field of knowledge at the intersection of history and geography, related to the system of historical sciences and at the same time to the system of geographical sciences; geography of a specific territory at a certain stage of its historical development. Historical and geographical ... ... Geographical encyclopedia

Historical geography- (historical geography) Historical geography, a science that studies geography and geographical problems of past historical eras, incl. by analyzing models and processes of changes over a certain period of time ... Countries of the world. Dictionary

Historical geography of Russia is the science of the state and changes in the geographical components of the territory of Russia in different historical periods, starting with the formation processes of this territory approximately from the transformations of Pangea and earlier ... ... Wikipedia

See Botanical Geography. Ecological encyclopedic dictionary. Chisinau: Main editorial board of the Moldavian Soviet Encyclopedia. I.I. Grandpa. 1989 ... Ecological Dictionary

Libmonster ID: RU-7531

Historical geography as a branch of historical knowledge has existed for several centuries. The founder of historical geography among German geographers and historians (in the scientific literature of other countries, until recently, this question was almost never raised) has long been considered to be Cluver, who was a professor at the famous Leiden University in the Netherlands in the first quarter of the 17th century. ...

Already in 1785, Heeren expressed himself in this sense in a collective course on the historical geography of the ancient world 1. Klyuver was named the founder of historical geography in the 1860s. Bursian 2, in the 80s - Wimmer 3. This opinion was especially strengthened after the appearance in 1891 of a small but informative monograph on Kluver by prof. Brocade (Partsch) "Philipp Cluver der Begrunder historischer Landerkunde". So, with reference to Brocade about Kluver as the founder of historical geography is said in the famous book of prof. Hettner's "Die Geographie, ihre Geschichte, ihr Wesen und ihre Methoden", published in 1927 4. In our literature, this opinion was repeated in 1927 by Rudnitskiy (c) a small compiled article "About the establishment of a historical geographer in the system of a modern land" 5 and, more recently, prof. Budanov in "Methods of Geography" 6.

The Belgian professor Van der Linden, in his opening speech at the opening of the first international congress on historical geography in 1930, made a different point of view: he pointed to Ortelius, the famous Flemish geographer of the second half of the 16th century, the author of the world's first historical atlas, as a "forerunner of historical geography." A similar opinion was expressed in 1935 by prof. Almagia, a prominent Italian historian of geographical science, who characterized Orgelia as "one of the founders of historical geography." More recently, in 1938, the American Barnes in his book "A history of historical writing" noted that already the English historian and geographer of the 12th century. Giraldus Cambrensis "was also engaged in historical geography."

I am not able, within the framework of this article, to expose

1 See "Handbuch der Alten Erdbeschreibung von d" Anville zum Gebrauch seines Atlas Antiquus in 12 Landkarten ", verfasst I Europa.

2 Bursian "Geographie von Griechenland".

3 Wimmer "Historische Landschaftskunde". Innsbruck. 1885.

4 There is a Russian translation.

5 Printed in "Notes of the Historical and Philological Viddilu" of the Ukrainian Academy of Sciences. Book. 13-14th, 1927.

6 Was published in 1939 reptile.

special scientific research the question of the time of the emergence of historical geography 1. But, in any case, the statements of historians "and geographers just cited make it possible to assert that historical geography in the Western Baron has existed for more than three centuries, even if its origin dates back to Kluver. In our country, the history of its development is shorter, correspondingly more young age Russian historical science, but nevertheless, Tatishchev already has the beginnings of historical geography, and our pre-revolutionary historians usually already date the beginning of the development of historical geography as a special discipline in Nadezhdin 2. Thus, in our country, historical geography cannot be considered a particularly young science.

Over the several centuries of the existence of historical geography, quite a lot of works in this area have accumulated. At international historical congresses, a special section on historical geography is usually organized. Such a section, as a rule, is also created at international geographical congresses. And in 1930, even a special international congress on historical geography was convened in Belgium, which was attended by scientists from Belgium, France, Germany, England, Italy, Spain, Holland and Poland. Judging by the reports in the scientific press 3, 55 reports were read at the congress in 7 sections and the congress was very lively.

Thus, historical geography is an old scientific discipline with an extensive literature, and, moreover, a discipline in which interest is growing.

If we turn, however, to the historical and geographical literature, we will find there a very significant variety of opinions on the content of the concept of "historical geography". This diversity of opinions was vividly expressed in the discussion on the subject of historical geography, which was organized in 1932 in London by the historical and geographical associations 4. To this it should be added that specific works on historical geography often contradict those definitions of the subject of historical geography that are given by their authors themselves. Sometimes, in order to get out of this predicament, the authors give two definitions - one broader, and the other narrower and corresponding to their presentation. So, for example, S.M. Seredonin did in his course on the historical geography of Russia. At the same time, it should be noted that the content of his book is even its narrower definition.

As a result of this situation, historical geography, even before the First World War, acquired a reputation as a science with a very vague content. S.K. Kuznetsov his course in Russian historical geography at the Moscow Archaeological Institute in 1907 - 1908.

1 Barnes's opinion is, in any case, incorrect: Girald of Cambrian wrote geographical works, but he has no historical and geographical works. Elements of historical geography in works on general geography are first encountered by Biondo in Italia illustrata in the 15th century. (about him see below); for the first time he separated historical geography from general Ortelius in the 16th century. The lack of space makes it impossible to substantiate this position.

3 See Journal des savants, 1930, August-October. "Annales de geographies, 1931, dated January 15th.

5 This can be clearly seen in the work of Kretschmer "Historische Geographie von Mitteleuropa" (see below).

began with the words: "I can hardly be mistaken if I say that the content of the science that I have to expound - Russian historical geography - is extremely vague, the very concept of it is extremely vague."

Similar reviews are being heard these days; for example v 1932 prof; Gilbert wrote in "What is historical Geography?" and goals "2. More recently, the famous French medievalist Marc Bloch, in his review of the collective work of English scholars edited by Darby, "Historical Geography of England before AD 1800," wrote: "Our vocabulary is still so imperfect that we can call the book Historical Geography. - means taking the risk of not giving a completely accurate idea of ​​its content in advance "3. In our Soviet literature, an attempt has even been made to deny the very expediency of the existence of historical geography.

It is hardly necessary to prove that the described uncertainty in understanding the subject of historical geography is a brake on successful work in this area. But, on the other hand, a simple addition of one more definition to those previously expressed is unlikely to correct the matter. Therefore, it seems to me more expedient to take a somewhat more complicated path. Leaving aside for the time being the definitions of the subject of historical geography, proposed by various authors, we will try to find out what actually content was and is being put into this concept by the authors of historical and geographical works in the works themselves, and not in theory.

When systematizing the actual content of historical and geographical works, I will, in my presentation, arrange brief characteristics of individual directions, if possible, in the chronological sequence of their appearance, and I will try, as far as possible within the framework of a short journal article, to link these directions with the development of historical and geographical science 5.

Such a review will help me to better substantiate my own views on the subject and tasks of historical geography, and will also be of some interest due to the lack of a corresponding summary both in our and in foreign scientific literature. Naturally, with the abundance of accumulated literature, I will have to not touch on much at all and only touch on a lot in passing.

The most elementary task that first of all confronts the historian-geographer is the localization of the geographical names of the past on the map. He seeks to determine the places where ancient peoples lived, the location of ancient cities, places of battles and other points associated with historical events. Wo es eigentlich gewesen? (Where, in fact, was it?) - this is how one can define, paraphrasing Ranke's well-known expression, the problem that historically

1 Kuznetsov S. "Russian Historical Geography". M. 1910.

2 In Scottisch Geographical Magazine, No. 3, 1932.

4 See Saar, "Sources and Methods of Historical Research." Baku. 1930.

5 Despite the fact that historical geography has existed for more than three centuries and has accumulated a huge amount of material, there is not a single attempt to study the history of its development in the scientific literature, neither in ours, nor in foreign, in connection with the development of historical science and the development of geographical science. The author of this article tries to fill this gap in the monograph "Historical geography, the history of its development as a scientific discipline, its subject and method", which he is preparing for publication.

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rose earlier than all others and with the setting and the first attempts to solve which historical geography as a science arises.

Already in the last quarter of the 16th century. Ortelius, working on the maps of his first historical atlas in the world, saw his main task in helping his contemporaries read ancient authors 1 . On the cover of his atlas, he put the words "Historiae oculus geographia" as a motto. In those cases when Ortelius encountered discrepancies in names among ancient authors, he often gave appropriate instructions on the map itself.

In order to interpret ancient geographical names and establish their connection with contemporary names, Ortelius compiled a historical-geographical dictionary under the title "Thesaurus Geographicus" 2.

A long series of subsequent researchers of the XVII, XVIII and XJX centuries were the successors of the work begun by Ortelius in his two works named. In the XVII century. in this "field, Kluver, who studied geography ancient Italy, Sicily and Germany, and Valois, who studied the geography of ancient Gaul. Their works, experts in the historical geography of the ancient world, were highly crushed even in the 19th century.

In the XVIII century. great authority enjoyed the work of d "Anville (d" Anville), whom Niebuhr (Niebuhr) called "the great d" Anville, one of the greatest geniuses known to me. "3 In the 19th century, the German scientist Hemrrch Kiepert was widely known who compiled an atlas of ancient Greece, an atlas of the ancient world 4 and a number of maps for ancient Roman inscriptions published by the Prussian Academy of Sciences 5, as well as excellent educational wall maps on ancient history, which were widely distributed in our country until the first imperialist war. and "Lehrbuch der alten Geographie", mainly devoted to the study of ancient geographical nomenclature, In addition to the general works indicated, many private studies have been written that clarified the location of this or that geographical point of the past or the place where this or that historical event took place. Tatishchev posed and tried to resolve (questions of this nature. In the first book of his "History of Russia" he It is a problem about the "name, incident and dwelling" of various nationalities that inhabited our country in the past. When at the end of the 18th century. Musin-Pushkin wrote a special study on the "location of the ancient Russian Tmutoro-Kan reign" 6, he was not the first researcher of the issue, which

1 Ortelius - Flemish geographer of the second half of the 16th century. (1527 - 1598) - gained European fame by publishing a fundamental geographical atlas called "Theatrum orbis terrarum", published in 1 - 570. The Atlas has gone through 21 editions in Latin and several editions in French, German, Spanish, Flemish, Italian and English. Together with Mercator, Ortelius is considered an outstanding representative of the Flemish cartographic school. As a supplement to his geographical atlas, Ortelius compiled the world's first historical atlas "Parergon theatri orbrs terrarum". There is quite a significant literature about Ortelius as a geographer (the main one is indicated in Bagrow's work "Abrahami Ortelii cataJogus geographorum". Gotha. 1928. Erganzttngsheft 199 zu Petermanns Mitteilungen); on the contrary, the historical and geographical works of Ortelius, which were of the greatest importance in their time, in the literature of the XIX - XX centuries. have not been subjected to scientific analysis.

2 Published in 1578 under the title "Synonimia geographica". In the second edition, the title was changed to "Thesaurus Geographicus".

3 Niеbuhr. "Vortrage uber alte Lander-und Volkerkunde"; d "Anvil was an honorary member of the Russian Academy of Sciences.

4 "Formae Orbis Antiqui". The work was completed by his son Richard.

5 "Corpus loscriptionum Latinarum".

6 Published in 1794.

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which had already been studied by Tatishchev, Prokopovich, Bayer, Shcherbatov, and Boltin before him.

In the XIX century. Questions of this kind have already been dealt with in our country by a number of researchers, for example Lerberg 1, Brun 2, and in particular the works of NP Barsov, who compiled the "Geographical Dictionary of the Russian Land of the IX-XIV Centuries", were of great importance. and "Essays on Russian Historical Geography. Geography of the Primary Chronicle". The first of these works is similar in structure to Ortelia's "Thesaurus Geograplltcus", in the second the author examines the geographical names found in the initial chronicle, determines the location of the corresponding points, examines the settlement of tribes, the boundaries of lands and reigns, establishes the chronicler's geographical outlook. Barsov has no cards.

Contemporary Soviet historians are also engaged in clarifying questions of ancient topography.

From defining the geographical position of places remarkable in historical relations, it was natural to move on to defining the routes of historical travels and campaigns of famous commanders. Geographic maps of sea routes have existed since ancient times. They were usually marked with the shores of those countries along which the sea route ran. These maps served as a guide for sailors. They received special development in the XIV century. in Italy (the so-called Portolans). Then, on the maps, they began to mark the very path along the sea with a line. In the geographic atlas of Agnese of 1546, drawn on parchment 4 Magellan's route and the route along which the Spanish ships sailed in Peru are mapped. For historical maps, this technique was first used by Ortelius in his atlas, drawing the route of travel of the biblical patriarch Abraham, Kluver in his Italia antiqua investigated "which way Hannibal crossed the Alps" 5. This technique was widely used in his historical atlas by the French geographer Du Val, who depicted the voyages of Odysseus and Aeneas, the route of retreat of ten thousand Greeks based on the story of Xenophon and the path of campaigns of Alexander the Great 6.

Since then, the study of historical paths, especially the paths of troop movements, has become common in historical geography. Attention is paid to this issue in modern studies not only in European countries with their long military history, but also in America, whose history is much poorer than such events. An example is the "Experience of the General Map of Paulist Campaigns" published in 1926 in Sao Paulo, Brazil, compiled by Alfonso de Toney 7. There are works on this kind of topics in Soviet literature, for example, published in 1937 in N 1

1 Lerberg "Studies that serve to explain ancient Russian history." 1819.

2 Brun "Black Sea. Collection of studies on the geography of southern Russia". 2 volumes.

3 See, for example, Kudryashov "Historical and geographical information about the Polovtsian land according to the chronicles of Igor Seversky's campaign against the Polovtsians in 1185" in Izvestia State geographic society". T. 69. Out. 1st.

4 A copy of this atlas is kept in the manuscript department of the Saltykov-Shchedrin Public Library in Leningrad.

5 See Cluver "Italia antiqua", p. 363.

6 Du Val "Cartes geographiques dressees pour bien entendre les historiens, pour connoistre les entendues des anciennes Monarchies et pour lire avec" fruit les Vies, les Voyages, tes Guerres et les Conquestes des grands Caipitaines. A Paris. 1660.

7 Affonso de Taunay "Ensaio de carta geral das bandeiras paulistas" (we are talking about the expeditions of the planters of the Brazilian state of São Paulo to capture the natives in order to turn them into slavery).

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"Historical Notes" article by VN Khudadov "The retreat of ten thousand Greeks from the Euphrates to Trebizond through the Caucasus".

It was natural to move from localizing historically remarkable places on the map to studying the political boundaries of the states of the past " and sometimes indicates political divisions within individual countries.Particular attention to the internal political division was paid in the 17th century in France by Nicolas Sanson, from whom French historians sometimes trace the beginnings of historical geography in France.1 Sanson, however, like Ortelius, considered the political boundaries of the past in statics, without trying to trace their dynamics.

The first attempt to give such dynamics was made in the same, XVII century. in France by the aforementioned Du Val, nephew and pupil of Sanson. Du Val drew three maps of the growth of the territory of the Roman Empire: Imperil Romani Infantia 2, Imperil Romani Adolescentia 3 and Imperii Romani Inventus 4. Subsequently, the study of the evolution of political boundaries became perhaps the most popular task in historical geography. Particular attention to this issue has been and is being paid in France not only in scientific, but also in educational literature. Since the time of the July Monarchy, textbooks on historical geography have been disseminated there, which provide an account of the history of the unification and territorial growth of France and changes in its administrative division. V scientifically in France did a lot in this direction at the end of the 19th century. Longnon with painstaking research 5. In 1881 the English scientist Freeman published a course on the historical geography of Europe written in the spirit of this direction. Freeman's work consisted of two volumes - an atlas and a text. It showed all the main changes in the political and partly ecclesiastical geography of Europe from antiquity to the 19th century. inclusive. Freeman's book gained great fame: it went through three editions in England and was translated into French and Russian. The Russian edition was published under the editorship of I.V. Luchitsky in 1892. For non-European colonial countries, the classic work of the German geographer Supana "Die territoriale Entwicklung der europaischen Kolonien mit einem Kolonialgeschichtlichen Atlas von 12 Karten und 40 Kartchen im Text" is of a similar nature. The author consistently examines, from a geographical point of view, the history of the division of the world between the European powers before 1900 and gives a number of maps of the colonies in connection with the most important points this story. In the opposite

1 For example, Julian (Jullian) in the introduction to the book "Geographie historique de la France" by Mirot. Paris. 1930.

2 In an atlas entitled "Diverses cartes et tables pour la geographie ancienne, pour la Chronologie et pour les itineraires et voyages modernes." A Paris. 1665.

3 In the atlas named above, on page 7.

4 In an atlas entitled "Diverses cartes et tables pour la geographie ancienne, pour la Chronologie et pour les itineraires et voyages modernes." A Paris. 1665.

5 Lotion is the author of "Atlas historique de la France depuis Cesar jusqu" a nos jours "(brought to 1380);" La formation de l "unite frangaise, Geographie de ia Gaule au VI siecle"; "Les noms de lieux de la France" and other works.

6 After the publication of Supan "a, several more major works have come out with the aim of tracing the history of political frontiers in colonies and dependent countries. The most significant of these are two: Hertslet's three-volume work" The map of Africa by treaty. "London, 1909, in which the author studies the history of the division of Africa by treaties between European powers, illustrating the boundaries established by treaties with maps, and the recently published work of Ireland Gordon "Bondaries possessions and conflicts in South America." with them in South America.

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Freeman's book, written in the form of a reference book, has a monographic historical study in Supan. This work was highly appreciated by V. I. Lenin, who used it in his work Imperialism as the Highest Stage of Capitalism. "Historical Map of the Russian Empire", which presented the territorial growth of RUSSIA from Peter I to Catherine II inclusive.

In the XIX - XX centuries. a number of researchers have dealt with individual issues of the history of our external and internal borders. Especially noteworthy here is Nevolin's work "On the Pyatins and Pogosts of Novgorod in the 16th century." More often, however, such questions were not studied in special works, but found themselves in the field of view of scientists or those who were engaged in the local history of any particular part of our country or who studied the organization of local government; for example, M. K. Lyubavsky in his work "Regional division and local government of the Lithuanian-Russian state at the time of the publication of the first Lithuanian statute" devoted an entire section of the book to the political geography of the Lithuanian-Russian state in the 15th - 16th centuries; Yu. V. Gauthier as an appendix to his research on the Zamoskovny Territory in the 17th century. based on scribes and census books, compiled a map of the Zamoskovny region in the middle of the 17th century. and gave, as a commentary to it, a list of camps and volosts that were part of each of the Zamoskovye districts; in another study - "The history of regional government in Russia from Peter I to Catherine II" - Yu, V. Gauthier devoted a special chapter to the regional division of 1725-1775.

In modern Soviet historical literature, attention is also paid to the study of "the history of borders. As an example, we can cite the work of S. V. Yushkov" On the borders of ancient Albania ", published in No. 1 of" Historical Notes "in 1937.

Old historical maps are an extremely valuable source for determining the places to which the geographical names of the past belong, for studying the borders of former states and provinces. Naturally, the study and publication of these maps became one of the tasks of historical geography almost from the very moment of its inception. Already at the end of the XVI century. Mark Welser, a member of the famous Augsburg merchant family and at the same time a humanist scientist, found in the library of the humanist Peitinger an ancient Roman map, later known in science as "Tabula Peutingeciana". Welser sent the map to Ortelius in Antwerp for study and publication. Orteliy did not manage to finish this work, and "Tabula Peutmgeria" na "was published after his death.1 Since then, a huge literature has accumulated about this map. trade essence of ancient Armenia 2.

1 The map was printed by Moretus, owner of the well-known publishing company Plantin "a, under the following title:" Tabula Itineraria ex fllustri Peutingerorum bibliotheca quae Augustae Vindelicorum est beneficio Marci Velseri septemviri Augustiani in lucem edita. " To the noblest husband, Mark Welser, septemvir of the Augsburg Republic, greetings are sent by Ivan Moretus, the typographer of Antwerp. We do not send this card, noble man, to you, but return it like water from your source. You sent it, the medium of Peytinger's papers, found by your efforts, to Ortelius (who recently died, to the regret of scientists) for publication; therefore, it returns to you by right. Ortelius himself, shortly before his death, so instructed me and my own wish and respect for you encouraged you to do the same. So, accept, if the deceased was dear to you, the last gift from him - this card, which once belonged to you personally, and now, thanks to you, is a common property. Antverpiae Typographeio nostro, Kai. Decemb. MCXCVIII ". Thus, the mistake made in the recently published book by O. L. Weinstein" Historiography of the Middle Ages ", where the publication of this map is attributed to Peitinger (p. 84), who died in fifty-one years (in 1547) should be corrected. before the card is issued.

2 See his work "On Trade and Cities of Armenia in the 5th - 15th Centuries". Yerevan. 1930.

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The publication and study of old maps was especially widespread in the 19th century. In the middle of the century, the Frenchman Zhomar 1 and the Portuguese Santarem 2 at the end of the century, the famous Swedish explorer of the polar countries and at the same time the historian of cartography Nordenskjold 3, did a lot in this regard. At present, this business has taken on a very significant scale abroad. In many countries, for example Italy 4, Czech Republic 5, Yugoslavia 6, "Monumenta cartographies" of these countries were published. Especially luxurious in design and exceptional in completeness of material is the multivolume edition "Monumenta cartographica Africae et Aegypti" 7 published in Egypt by Yusuf Kamal.

In our country, the work of V. A, Kord and "Materials on the History of Russian Cartography" is well-known in three editions, published sequentially in 1899, 1906 and 1910. In 1931 the same author published "Materials to the History of Cartography of Ukraine". The publication of the "Book of the Big Drawing" 8 and Remezov's maps should also be included in this group of historical and geographical works.

The study of geographical monuments of the past as a historical source, of course, should have pushed researchers to study the history of the development of geographical views. On the other hand, scientific thought and the expansion of the content of historical science and the development of geography should have been directed in the same direction, “it took a lot of time for all these influences to give concrete results. They did not distinguish between any periods of development in the geographical thought of antiquity.

The content of historical works of the XVI - XVII centuries. was reduced to an exposition of only the political events of the past. The situation changed only in the 18th century. In the "Age of Enlightenment" in France, the bourgeoisie posed broader tasks for historians. As the Spanish historian Altamira notes, the 18th century put forward the principle that “history is“ not the history of rulers, but the history of peoples. ”The history of culture was born, Frere 10 at this time laid the foundation for the study of the“ History of geographical views of antiquity. In the XIX century. the subject of study is the development of geography in the Middle Ages. The Polish historian Lelewel, who, according to Marx, "did much more to clarify the enslavement of his homeland than a whole crowd of writers, whose entire baggage is simply

1 Jomard "Les monuments de la geographic ou recueil d" anciennes cartes europeennes et orientates publiees en faosimile de la grandeur des originaux "Paris 1842 - 62.

2 Santarem "Atlas compose de rnappemondes et de portulans et d" autres monuments geographiques "depuis le VI siede de notre ere jusqu" au XVII-me ". Paris. 1842 - 53.

3 Nordenskiold "Atlas to the early history of cartography". Stockholm, 1889; "Periplus, an essay on the early history of charts and sailings direction", Stockhelm. 1897.

4 "Almagia Monumenta Italiae cartographica". 1930.

5 "Monumenta cartographica Bohemia" ".

6 Syndic "Old map of the jygoslav zemaly". Beograd.

7 Does not go on sale, but is sent to the largest libraries in the world. In the USSR, it is available in the Leningrad Public Library named after Saltykov-Shchedrin.

8 It was first published by Novikov in 1773, since then it has been reprinted several times.

9 Altamira "La Ensenanza de la historia", p. 131.

10 Freret "Observations generales sur la geographie ancienne". The work was kept in the papers of the Academy of Inscriptions in Paris and was published only in 1850 in the "Memoires de l" Institut national de France. Academic des inscriptions et belles lettres. "T. XVI.

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address Russia "1, in emigration wrote a great work" La geographic du moyen age ", which has not lost its significance until now 2. In our country ID Belyaev already in 1852 published a study" On geographical information in ancient Russia " Since then, much has been done in this direction.

It is hardly necessary to prove that the history of geography is not at all historical geography, although, of course, there are many points of contact between these branches of knowledge, and, in particular, geographical works of the past, like old maps, can often serve as a historical source. However, historical geography and the history of geography are very often confused, and, moreover, specialists are confused, for example, SM Seredonin in his course "Historical Geography" characterizes the above article by ID Belyaev as a work on the historical geography of our country.

So, the localization of historically remarkable places on the map, the determination of the routes of military campaigns, the study of the history of political borders and, in this regard, the study of ancient maps as one of the types of historical and geographical sources - this is a complex of related problems faced by the historical geography from the very beginning of its inception. The content of this complex is fully consistent with the requirements that so-called political history makes for historical geography.

The next problem, which is usually also attributed to the field of historical geography, is the question of the population of a given country in the past and its distribution over the territory. This "question was no stranger to the scholars of the 16th - 15th centuries. When they met ancient writers mention of a nation, they tried to determine the place where this narad lived, then they tried, for example, to give a picture of the distribution of tribes and peoples through the territory of ancient Gaul, Germany to t. p.

In the 19th century, under the influence of the national upsurge in Germany and the National Revival among the Czechs, Croats and Slovenes, as well as due to the growth of historical knowledge and the development of scientific linguistics, work in this area of ​​historical geography significantly expanded and deepened. A new source was introduced - toponymy data.

The desire to interpret the meaning of geographical names already existed in antiquity. During the Renaissance and later, historians also often tried to explain geographical names, and their lack of linguistic training led to the most arbitrary conclusions. In the first half of the 19th century, with the growth scientific linguistics, toponymy found in him a solid support for his research. In the second half of the century, extensive work was organized in the countries of Western Europe to collect geographical names. This work continues to this day. In England, there is a special scientific organization - the English place-name Society, which publishes systematic lists of geographical names by counties. Similar "publications exist in Germany, France and some other countries. A special journal on toponymy is published in Germany -" Zeitschrift fur Ortsnamenforschung ", in Belgium -" Bulletin de la commission de toponymie et dialectologie ".

1 K. Marx and F. Engels. Op. T. XI. Part 1, p. 508.

2 Almost simultaneously published his work on the history of geography in the Middle Ages, the above-mentioned publisher of medieval maps Santarem - "Essai sur l" histoire de ia eosmographie et de la geographic pendant le rnoyen age ". Paris, TI 1849. T. II. 1850, T III, 1852. This work was supposed to serve as a commentary on the maps published by him.

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Toponymy is, of course, not historical geography, but its data is widely used by historical geography. Studying geographical names, toponymy establishes not only their etymological structure and their meaning (when it is possible), but also their belonging to a particular language (without this, philological analysis is impossible). As a result, it is possible, on the basis of an analysis of the geographical names of any area, to determine which people gave these names and, therefore, inhabited this area in the past. For this opportunity at the end of the 18th century. noticed in Germany - in Lausitz - where a number of works by local pastors appeared in the Neuer Lausitziseher Magazin, using material from local toponymy to decide whether the original inhabitants of Lausitz were Slavs or Germans 1 .

In 1821, one of the founders of scientific linguistics, Wilhelm Humboldt 2, published the work "Prufung der Untersuchungen uber die Urbewohner Hispaniens vermittelst der Vaskischen-Sprache", in which he tried to analyze the geographical nomenclature of the national population of Spain with the help of the Basque language country. Figures of the Slavic revival early drew attention to this historical source: already Kollar 3 and Shafarik 4 attract him to research. Since then, a lot has been done in Western Europe in this direction. A number of methodological difficulties have been clarified, 5 methods have been developed for the use of toponymy data; formed scientific directions who have accumulated significant literature; there are toponymic atlases, among which the detailed "Atlas nazw geograficznych Slowianszczyzny Zachodniej" by Kozerovsky 6, a tireless researcher of Slavic toponymy in East Germany, should be noted.

Among the classics of Marxism, Engels was interested in questions of historical geography, who also used toponymy data for some of his works. In the articles "Germanic Tribes" and "Frankish Dialect", which remained in the manuscript after the death of Engels, I published for the first time only in the USSR, 7 Engels gave a workshop a sketch of the geographical distribution of ancient Germanic tribes and dialects.

In our country, NI Nadezhdin was the first to point out the significance of toponymy data for historical geography more than a hundred years ago. In his article "Experience of the Historical Geography of the Russian World" Nadezhdin wrote: "The first page of history should be a geographical land map, not only as an aid to know where what happened, but as a rich archive of the documents and sources themselves." He further points out that it is not the meaning of the name that is important for the historian, but the definition to which language it belongs, in order to determine in this way which people inhabited a given area in the past. He himself, on the basis of an analysis of the names of the rivers of Eastern Europe, sketched a scheme for the settlement of Slavic and Finnish tribes on it in the past. In his article, NI Nadezhdin, by the way, mentions the above-mentioned work of Wilhelm Humboldt on the ancient population of Spain. Nadezhdin's article had a significant impact on the Russian historical geo-

1 See Egli "Geschichte der geographischen Namenkunde", S. 37. Leipzig. 1886.

2 Elder brother of Alexander Humboldt, who, along with Ritter, is considered the founder of modern geography.

3 Kollar "Rozprawyo gmienach, pocatkach i starozjtnostech narodu Slawskiego a geho Kmenu". 1830.

4 Safarik "Slovanske staixritnosti". Ed. 1836 and 1837.

5 For a description of them, see the capital work of D. Yegorov "Colonization of Mecklenburg in the XIII century." T. I. Ch. IX. Toponymic material.

8 Poznan. 1934 - 1937.

7 See K. Marx and F. Engels. Op. T. XVI. Part 1, pp. 376 and 412.

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graphics both in terms of method and subject matter. The problem of the population occupied a central place in it for a long time, for example, in the well-known book of Barsov 1, a lot of attention was paid to the settlement of the Eastern Slavs according to the data of the chronicle. The course of historical geography by SI Seredonin is devoted exclusively to the change and placement of peoples on the territory of European Russia from the time of Herodotus to the Mongol conquest. From the problem of the ethnographic composition of the population, our historians moved on to studying the history of the colonization of the territory of Eastern Europe and North Asia by the Russian and Ukrainian peoples. The importance of colonization in the history of Rosshi was pointed out by S. M. Soloviev. Colonization is studied by S.M. Solovyov from nationalist positions. This nationalist bias was characteristic in this issue and many subsequent historians of the pre-revolutionary time. In our historiography, many special works are devoted to the colonization of certain parts of our country; in the same way, great attention was paid to it in the general courses. For example, V.O. Klyuchevsky puts forward colonization "as the basic fact" of Russian history 2. MK Lyubavsky built a course on the historical geography of Russia as the history of colonization 3.

A further problem, which is often associated with historical geography, is the study of the influence of natural conditions on the course of the historical process in any country.

Ancient writers were still talking about the influence of nature on man and on the course of history. Thucydides and Xenophon have statements on this topic. Strabo connects the successes of the Roman conquests with the geographical location and nature of Italy 4. The influence of nature occupies a prominent place in the historical-societal theory of one of the greatest Arab historians, Ibn Khaldun.5 During the Renaissance, the French statesman and historian Boden dwelt on this.6 In the 18th century, Montesquieu was attached to the influence of nature on human society. a number of other thinkers of the Age of Enlightenment.

Thus, the question of "the role of the geographic factor in history" is a very old question. However, until the 19th century. This question was usually posed in a general form and was usually resolved in the sense of recognizing the decisive influence of one of the natural conditions - the climate of a given country - on the human psyche, and through it, on society and on the entire historical process.

In the 19th century, under the influence of the famous German geographer Ritter, who, in the words of the Spanish historian Altamira, “approved the study of geographical phenomena as an element of social history” 7, the problem received a more concrete formulation. Natural conditions began to be studied as an external environment in which the historical process develops. Ritter's student the historian Curtius wrote in 1851-1852. a monograph about the Peloponnese, where, with the art of the artist, he comprehensively characterized the geography of the Peloponnese and its influence on the history

1 Barsov "Essays on Russian Historical Geography. Geography of the Primary Chronicle". 1st ed. 1874; 2nd ed. 1885.

4 Strabo "Geography", pp. 286 - 287. Translated by Mishchenko.

5 See Belyaev "Ibn Khaldun's Historical and Sociological Theory". "Historian-Marxist" N 4-5 for 1940.

6 Vodin "Six livres de la Republique". 1576.

7 Altamira "La eosenanza de la historia", p. 166.

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rya of this country in antiquity. However, as Futher 1 points out, Ritter's influence captured only a few historians.

In the 1880s, when modern geography was already formed as a branch of natural science, the German geographer Patzel made an attempt to build a new branch of geographical science - anthropogeography, which was supposed to study the influence of the geographical environment on the social life of mankind 2.

In France, somewhat later Ratzel, with a similar system of ideas, appeared Vidal de la Blache 3. His ideas were later developed by his students 4. Anthropogeography, or the geography of man, as the French and the British call it, has since then received a very significant development in Western Europe and America. Within the framework of this article, there is neither the need nor the opportunity to subject bourgeois anthrologeography to a critical analysis. Suffice it to point out that its development entailed not only an increased attention of historians and geographers to the influence of nature on the course of the historical process, but also a number of attempts to trace this influence on specific examples of individual countries. Such attempts were especially often made in the United States 5 - a young country with extremely rich natural resources. And there the most prominent are the works of Turner 6, who built on a huge factual! The material is an original concept of North American history, in which the colonization movement to the west and the development of natural resources are presented as the main fact of the North American historical process.

In our scientific literature, the issue of the influence of the geographic environment is also an old problem, already known to historians of the 18th century, for example, Bolty and W. In the XIX century. SM Solov'ev, who listened to Ritter's lectures in Berlin, 7 begins his History of Russia with an outline of natural conditions; he returns to their role in the future, starting to study the era of Peter I. The student of S. M. Soloviev V. O. Klyuchevsky also begins his course, as you know, with an outline of the nature of the East European Plain. It is interesting to note that both in S. M. Soloviev and, in particular, in V. O. Klyuchevsky, these introductory essays are weakly connected with the subsequent presentation. A.P. Shchapov spoke out against such an approach to natural conditions as early as 1864. In the article "The Ethnographic Organization of the Russian Population", he wrote: "We have many-book Russian stories only in the first chapter will usually express a few words about Russian tribes and peoples, or simply list only them, just as soon as in the first chapter they say a few words about the Russian geography or geographical influence on history - as if tribes and peoples suddenly disappear without a trace from the face of the Russian land, having no effect on the Russian people, on Russian history, and as if geography did not accompany history at every step, in every region. Where is the land

1 Fueter "Geschichte der neueren Historiographie". S. 497.1911.

2 The main works of Ratzel: "Anthrppogeographie", Bd. I, Stuttgart. 1882; Bd. II, 1891 and "Politische Geographie oder die Geographie der Staaten, des Verkehrs und des Krieges". Munchen. 1903.

3 Major works of Vidal de la Blache- "Principes de Geographie htimaine". Paris. 1918 and "Tableau de la Geographie de la France".

4 About the school of Vidal de la Blasch in Soviet literature there is an article by I.A.Witver in " Scientific notes Moscow University ". Issue 35th.

6 Major works of Turner "a" Rise of the New West 1819 - 1829 "N. Y. 1906;" The Frontier in the American History ".

7 See "Notes of S. M. Soloviev", p. 65.

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and people (detente Shchapov. - V. I). Have they really failed somewhere, and there is only one state left? "

A himself, P. Shchapov, tried to trace the influence of the geographical environment on Russian history in the article "Historical and geographical distribution of the Russian population", where he studies the dependence on the natural conditions of the distribution of the population in Russia. A.P. Shchapov considers the geographical environment to be a decisive factor in historical development. It determines, in his opinion, not only the economic life of a person, but also his psyche, while Shchapov ignores the relations of production and the state of the productive forces. The geographical environment, according to Shchalov, directly affects the economy and the very nature of man. As a result, A.P. Shchapov "comes to idealism in the understanding of history and belongs to the group of materialists who could not build a bridge from a materialistic view of nature in order to materialistically explain social phenomena."

In our days, an interesting attempt to trace the systematic influence of natural conditions on the historical process was made by II Polosin, who sees the task of historical geography precisely in the development of this problem.

In close connection with the problem of the role of natural conditions in the historical process, there is the question of studying the state of these very conditions in the past, the question of reconstructing what the German geographer Wimmer 3 aptly called "die historische Naturlandschaft". The question of what the nature of a given country was in the past, how much it has changed in particular, during that, from a geological point of view, an insignificant period of time during which the history of mankind developed - this question has always interested natural scientists. From the point of view of a specialist in physical geography, the task of historical geography is primarily to resolve this issue, and all its other problems are, so to speak, investigative. The historian of Russian geographical science L. S. Berg 4 in "his work, the paragraph devoted to the historical geography of our country, begins first of all with this problem. Natural scientists have worked a lot to clarify the evolution of vegetation, 5 hydrography, coastal" and similar questions both here and abroad. Sources of both natural science and historical nature were used as material.

To a lesser extent, these questions were dealt with by historians, who usually relied only on historical sources, and sometimes also used the works of natural scientists. As examples, we can point out in the West Desjardins, who gave a detailed and thorough reconstruction of the physical geography of Gaul 6, in our country - Zamyslovsky 7, who tried to do the same for Moscow Rus XVI v. on

1 Sidorov A. "The petty-bourgeois theory of the Russian historical process (A. P. Shchapov)". In the collection "Russian Historical Literature in Class Illumination".

2 In the course of lectures on the historical geography of the USSR, read by II Polosin in 1939 at the Moscow Historical Archives Institute. Course unpublished. For giving me the opportunity to familiarize myself with the transcript of the lectures, I would like to thank II Polosin.

3 Wimmer "Historische Landschaftskunde". Innsbruck. 1885. After Wimmer, this term became firmly established in German literature.

4 Berg L. "Essay on the history of Russian geographical science". Leningrad. 1929.

3 Here they studied the famous struggle between the forest and the steppe in the literal, and not in the figurative, sense of the word, as historians did.

6 Desjardins "Geographie hfstorique et administrative de la Gaule Romaine".

7 Zamyslvsky "Herberstein and his historical and geographical news about Russia".

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based on the data of Herberstein, as well as V.V.Bartold, who studied the changes in the directions of the Amu Darya in the historical past 1.

Summarizing everything that has just been said about the study in historical geography of changes in the geographical environment in the historical past and its influence on the historical process, it must be admitted that much more has been done in the area of ​​the first problem than in the area of ​​the second.

Until recently, questions of the geography of production and the geography of economic ties attracted little attention of specialists in historical geography.

Increased attention of historians and economists to issues economic history began in the last third of the 19th century. The works of Marx exerted a significant influence on Western European science in strengthening its interest in the problems of socio-economic history. This is not denied by the bourgeois scientists themselves. Typical in this sense is the recognition of such a historian as Doili 2. But the development of economic geography lagged significantly and continues to lag behind the development of economic history.

The founders of bourgeois anthrottogeography, building their system, paid little attention to the problems of the geography of the economy. Economists-geographers, instead of studying the geography of productive forces and production relations (the latter problem is still little studied in the West), they continued to describe the state of the national economy by industry, as they did long before the 19th century. It is clear that in the absence of the economic geography of the present, the economic geography of the past could not have developed.

When the great researcher Desjardins, in the above-mentioned work on the geography of Gaul, tried to give the economic geography of Gaul during the Roman rule, he obtained a sectoral characteristic of the Gaul economy, approximately of the same type, according to which the economic and geographical characteristics of France were then built. The authors of historical and economic works were not alien to the idea of ​​the need to study the history of the economy in the regions. There were works devoted to the economic past of certain localities. But until recently there were no works that would give the historical and economic geography of any country.

Over the past 15 to 20 years, economic geography has made significant advances in the West. From sectoral descriptions of the economy, the center of gravity moved to regional characteristics. Economic history has accumulated significant material in the regional context. As a result, in works on historical geography, attempts are made to construct the economic geography of the past. Such a task, for example, is set by East in his book "Historical geography of Europe", published in 1935.

In Soviet literature, interesting works on economic geography

1 See the works of V. V. Bartold "On the issue of the confluence of the Amu Darya into the Caspian Sea". "Notes of the Eastern Department of the Russian Archaeological Society". T. XJV. Issue 1st. 1902; "Information about the Aral Sea and the lower reaches of the Amu Darya from ancient times to the 17th century,". "Bulletin of the Turkestan Department of the Russian Geographical Society". IV, 1902; and "To the history of irrigation in Turkestan". SPB. 1914. Recently, this issue, which had been repeatedly studied earlier, was again subjected to research by the specialist in physical geography A.S. Kes, who revised on the spot all natural-historical material and used the works of historians. See Kes A. "The channel of the Uzboy and its genesis". 1939. "Proceedings of the Institute of Geography of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR". Issue XXX.

2 See Histoire et historiens depuis cinquante ans, ed. French magazine "Revue historique". T. I, p. 13.

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fii of our past belong to the late P. G. Lyubomirov. The most interesting of them by design is his attempt to give Russia the 17th century. and for Russia in the 18th century. division into economic regions 1. Unfortunately, this attempt has a sketchy character.

If we go from individual problems studied by historical geography to consolidated works aimed at giving a historical and geographical description of a country or territory, then here we can state a very wide variety. The first work of this kind was "Italia Illustrata" by Biondo, a prominent Italian historian of the mid-15th century 2. "Italia illustrata" is a regional description of Italy. For each of the described regions of Italy, Biondo reports its location, sometimes names rivers, gives a description of the population in antiquity, briefly mentions the most important historical events that took place in this territory, then lists cities, both extinct and modern, speaks about each, what is it remarkable in the historical sense and what is famous for in the modern era of the author 3. There are no maps in Biondo's work. As you can see from this brief description, Italia illustrata mixes local history facts with elements of historical and contemporary geography for the author. Therefore, "Italia illustrata" can be considered the embryo of historical geography. Italia Illustrata made a strong impression on contemporaries and descendants.

In Germany, Futher points out, there were unsuccessful attempts to "emulate the Bioyado" Germania illustrata.

The famous work of the English historian Camden "Britannia" 4, published in 1586, was written according to an expanded and improved scheme of the composition of Biondo. Camden already has a historical periodization. Back in the middle of the 18th century. the Alsatian scholar Schoepflin5 compiled a two-volume work "Alsatia illustrata" according to a scheme similar to that of Camden.

The confusion of the facts of local history with certain elements of historical geography has become a characteristic feature of general, consolidated works on historical geography. The inclusion of facts of local history has taken place and is taking place in historical and geographical works both abroad and in our country. Moreover, in pre-revolutionary Russian literature, almost the majority of works devoted to local history were often referred to as historical-geographical; this is what S.M. Seredonin does in that section of his book "Historical Geography", where he gives a brief overview of the development of

1 See in Encyclopedic Dictionary Pomegranate (T. 36. Part 3) the word "Russia".

2 Biondo was born in 1392, as his newest biographer Nogara points out. Biondo's year of birth is usually incorrectly considered to be 1388; Bioado died in 1463. According to Fueter's assessment, to which the Soviet researcher O. L. Weinstein joins, Biondo "did more for the study of the Middle Ages and ancient Rome than all contemporary humanists put together" ("Geschichte der neueren Historiographie", S. 109. 1911 ).

3 Futher for some reason considers "Italia illustrata" written in the form of a dictionary, which, in fact, does not exist. Apparently, following Futher, this wrong opinion is repeated by O. L. Vainshtein (cit. Cit., P. 87). It is also impossible to agree with Weinstein that Biondo was at the papal curia something like a scribe. The positions of notary of the papal chamber and "apostolic secretary" that Biondo held were not those of scribe, but that Pope Nicholas V kept Biondo "in a black body," which is true. See Masius "Flavio Biondo, sein Leben und seine Werke" and Voigt "The Revival of Classical Antiquity".

4 "Britannia" was written not only under the influence of the work of Biondo, but also under the influence of Ortelius, whom Kemdeya personally met in 1577, during Ortelius's trip to England, and with whom he was in scientific correspondence. See "Camden" in Dictionary of national biography, edited by Leslie Stephen, vol. VIII and Denuce "Oud nederlandsche Kaartmakers in betrekk; ng met Plantijn". T. II, p. 41.

5 Was an honorary member of the Russian Academy of Sciences.

p. 17

country. This, of course, greatly contributed to the fact that the reputation of a scientific discipline with an indefinite content was established behind historical geography.

At the end of the 19th century, after the formation of modern scientific geography, there are attempts to construct the geography of the past as a system of knowledge similar to the geography of the present. In 1876, Desjardins set a task for historical geography - "he will study the country during a certain period of its past according to the same principles and the same method and according to the same plan, as if it were a matter of a modern country" 1. Desjardins solved this problem in relation to Roman Gaul "at the level of the then state of geographical science.

Two years earlier in our country, Desjardins had similar views expressed by L. N, Maikov, 2 but did not try to implement them. An attempt to realize them was made by Zamyslovsky in the book "Herberstein and His Historical and Geographical News of Russia", published in 1884.

In German science since the end of the XIX century. 3, under the influence of Patzel and his followers, the division of the content of historical geography into three Oseotan sections became widespread: 1) Historische Naturlandschaft, 2) Historische Kulturlandschaft, 3) Historisch-politische Landschaft 4. The first term here denotes the history of changes in the natural geographic landscape, which I already mentioned above, the third - the most familiar to historians of historical and political geography, which has already been discussed. The second means the study of how the settlements of the communication route, fields, gardens, etc. looked like in the past and how the settlements were located. The main task of this section is to identify the influence of natural conditions on the location of the economy of the country under study in the past, as well as on the morals and psyche. its population. However, in fact, in German works on historical geography, in the chapters on the Historische Kulturlandschaft, these problems are usually not solved to this extent. As an example, one can point to the solid work of Kretschmer "Historische Geographie von Mitteleuropa", which gives, for a number of dates, brief general sketches of the state of agriculture, forests, mining and communication in Central Europe, with almost no indication of how the corresponding economic phenomena are distributed over the territory. and for what reasons this distribution has one form or another, that is, in other words, there is very little geography in these essays.

The revival in the West in recent years of interest in historical geography has again put on the agenda the problem of the consolidated historical and geographical characteristics of the country and, moreover, in the same direction in which Desjardins put it.

At the International Congress of Historians in Brussels in 1923 5 and there, at the International Congress of Historical Geography in 1930, Pergameni, President of the Belgian Geographical Society, put forward the idea that historical geography is "the geography of man, transferred to past "6. During the organization

1 Desjardins "Geographie historique et administrative de la Gaule Romaine".

3 For the first time such a division was proposed, if I am not mistaken, by Wimmer in the book "Historische Landschaftskunde". Innsbruck. 1885.

4 This understanding of historical geography in the post-war years found a sympathetic response also in Polish scientific literature. See Arnold "Geografja historyczna, jej zadama i metody" in the journal "Przeglad Historyczny" for 1929, T. VIII.

5 See "Compte-rendu du V oongres international des sciences historiques". Bruxelles. 1923.

6 "La geographic humaine transportee dans le passe".

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In 1932, the Historical and Geographical Associations held a discussion in London on the content and tasks of historical geography 1 Gilbert pointed out that the main task of historical geography is "the reconstruction of the regional geography of the past." Of the modern works written in the spirit of this direction, the most interesting is the collective work edited by Darby - "Historical Geography of England before A. D. 1800" - published in 1935. The authors examine changes in the natural landscape of England, the composition and distribution of its population and the economic geography of the country from prehistoric times to the 18th century. inclusive. They use both written sources and archaeological data. Toponymy data are used for the history of settlement. When studying changes in the geographical landscape under the influence of human activities, much attention is paid to the history of drainage of swamps in the XVII - XVIII centuries... In studying the economic geography of the past, they deal with both the geography of production and the geography of trade. Fences are not forgotten either. The book's methodology is common in English historical works. The class struggle remains out of sight of the authors. This book is, of course, the best achievement of modern foreign historical geography.

It remains to say a few more words about historical cartography. Starting from Ortelius and almost until the very end of the 19th century. the task of the compiler of the historical map was reduced to establishing the location of historically remarkable places, to fixing political boundaries and their changes, to establishing the location and routes of movement of the troops. This is the content of the maps (Famous historical atlases of the 19th century: Spruner 2, Droysen 3, Schrader 4. In the 20th century, special atlases for colonial countries appear: Joppen - for India 5, Walker - for South Africa 6, Herman - for China 7 By their nature, they do not differ in any significant way from the ones just mentioned. maps of trade routes, a typical plan of the English manor, historical and ethnographic maps, a map of taxation in pre-revolutionary France, an economic map of England in the era of the industrial revolution, and some others.

The development of scientific historical cartography went on in the XX century. in two ways: Richter 10 in Austria and Fabricius 11 in the Rhineland, in Germany,

1 See above, p. 4.

2 Spruner "Handatlas fur die Geschichte des Mittelalters und der neueren Zeit". Engels used Spruner's atlas when he wrote his work On the Decomposition of Feudalism and the Development of the Bourgeoisie. See K. Marx and F. Engels. Op. T. XVI. Part 1, p. 443.

3 Droysen "Allgemeiner historischer Handatlas". 1886.

4 Schrader "Atlas de la geographic historique". Paris. 1896.

5 Joppen "Historical Atlas of India". 1st ed. - 1907; the last one is 1934.

6 Walker "Historical Atlas of South Africa". 1922.

7 Hermann "Historical and commercial Atlas of China", 1935.

8 Putzger "Historischer Schulatlas" - many editions.

9 Shepherd "Historical Atlas" - multiple editions.

10 Richter "Historischer Atlas der osterreichischen Afcpenlander". 1906.

11 Fabricius "Geschichtlicher Atlas der Rheinprovinz" has been in sheets since 1895.

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material strive to give extremely detailed maps of the administrative and church divisions and settlements of the past. During the World War II in Holland, the Historical Atlas of the Netherlands, compiled in a similar way, began to appear in separate sheets 1 edited by Beckman. In the postwar years, Polish scientists began to issue the same type of separate sheets of "Atlas historyczny Polski" 2 . The degree of detail of maps in this type of atlases can be judged by the following example: on the map of the Krakow Voivodeship of the era of the four-year Diet (1788 - 1792), the borders of counties, parishes (except for larger church divisions), settlements are plotted, and their sizes are indicated (by the number of smokes ;) and the social nature of the possessions (gentry, clergy, royal, etc.), churches and monasteries with an indication of their various categories, courts of various instances and other state institutions, schools, hospitals, fortresses, castles, taverns, mills, developments minerals with an indication of the wada of minerals, glass, iron-making and paper enterprises, roads with an indication of their type, bridges, transports, customs, forests.

Another direction in cartography is represented by the German Geschichtlicher Atlas von Rheinprovinz, published in 1926 under the editorship of Aubin, and the Atlas of the historical geography of the United States, edited by Gh. O. Paullin, published in 1932 year. In addition to historical and political maps, these atlases contain mini maps on economic history and cultural history 3. But these two atlases do not differ in the same degree of detail as those mentioned above.

In our country, little attention has been paid to historical cartography. True, in some scientific monographs there are excellent historical maps, for example, in the works of Yu. V. Gauthier 4, MM Bogoslovsky 5, MK Lyubavsky 6. But we do not have a scientific historical atlas. Of the few elementary educational atlases, the old atlas of Zamyslovsky (last edition, 1887) must be recognized as the best. The author of these lines made an attempt in 1923-1925. to add historical and economic maps to our historical cartography by publishing an atlas on the history of the national economy of Russia in the 18th - 20th centuries 7.

Among the historical maps, one should also note their special kind - archaeological maps, available both in our country and abroad. There are even special archaeological atlases.

A cursory survey of the state of "historical geography shows that the reputation of a science with an uncertain content is to some extent

1 Beekman "Gesehiedkundige Atlas van Nederland".

2 For sending materials on Polish historical geography, the author expresses gratitude to the history department of the Franko Lviv State University, in particular to the head of the department. auxiliary sciences prof. T. I. Modelsky. The author also thanks the head of the Kaunas University library comrade Exchange.

3 Judging by the published program, Atlas historico de la America hispano-portguesa, por J. Dantin Correceda y Loriente Cancio, which began to appear in issues in Spain on the eve of the civil war, should also be attributed to the same type. There appeared to be only one second issue. Madrid. 1936.

4 See Gautier Y. "Zamoskaznye region in the 17th century." and "The history of regional government in Russia from Peter I to Catherine II".

5 Bogoslovsky M. "Zemstvo self-government in the Russian north in the 17th century."

6 Lyubavsky M. "Regional division and local government of the Lithuanian-Russian state".

7 Published by the educational department of the Glavpolitprosvet under the title "Visual Aids on the History of the National Economy of Russia" (with text).

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deserved by this discipline, it is the result of a number of reasons. Historical geography develops slowly; Until now, few historians and geographers have been engaged in it, so the old continues to live in it along with the new. In addition, historians are poorly familiar with geography and vice versa. Finally, the concept of economic geography for a very long time was distinguished by significant uncertainty due to the long domination of the so-called branch direction in this science. And even now, economic geography cannot be called a fully developed science.

But, on the other hand, an overview of the state of historical geography makes it possible to establish a quite definite tendency in its development. The development of historical geography is closely linked with the development of historical science and with the development of geographical science. When historical science was reduced mainly to "the actions of kings and commanders, to the actions of" conquerors "and" conquerors "of states" 1, and in geography the most developed parts were mathematical geography and cartography, then, naturally, the content of historical geography was reduced to fixing on the map historically remarkable places, to the study of the borders of states and the ways of campaigns. The study of the influence of nature on the historical process could then go beyond general reasoning, since in geographical science the study of nature itself was extremely poorly developed, and in historical science there was no study of economic history, on the facts of which the influence of the geographical environment can be concretely shown.

The development of economic history, on the one hand, the formation of physical geography as a natural scientific discipline and, at the same time, the development of economic geography, on the other hand, could not but cause the expansion of the content of historical geography, the introduction of new problems into it, the emergence of attempts to build historical geography as a system knowledge of the type of modern geography.

What should be the content of Marxist historical geography? "The history of the development of society, - said in the" Brief course on the history of the CPSU (b) ", - is, first of all, the history of the development of production, the history of production methods, replacing each other over the centuries, the history of the development of productive forces and production relations of people" 2. Historical science "must, first of all, deal with the history of the producers of material goods, the history of the working masses, the history of peoples."

The main task of historical geography should be the study and description of the geographical side of the historical process. Historical geography, being an auxiliary discipline of historical science and not pretending to reveal the basic laws of the course of history, should, on the basis of the periodization adopted in historical science, give a number of characteristics of the economic and political geography of a given country or territory at the appropriate points in time. The main elements of the above characteristics and descriptions should be: I) the natural landscape of a given era, i.e., historical physical geography, 2) the population in terms of its ethnicity, location and movement across the territory, i.e., the historical geography of the population, 3) the geography of production and economic ties, i.e., historical and economic geography, 4) the geography of external and internal political borders, as well as the most important historical events, i.e.

2 In the same place.

3 Ibid.

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historical and political geography. All these elements should be studied not in isolation, but in mutual connection and conditionality.

The geographic environment, according to the instructions of the classics of Marxism, "is one of the constant and necessary conditions for the development of society," and it affects human society. However, “its influence is not the determining influence” 1. Taking full account of this decisive indication of Marxist theory, historical geography, nevertheless, when studying the phenomena of the past, must take into account and investigate the role and influence of the geographical environment on the history of society.

The range of natural resources involved in human exploitation is gradually * expanding with the course of history. In the feudal era, almost no coal was mined. Under capitalism, coal acquired great economic importance. Oil began to be produced in significant quantities only from the second half of the 19th century. Phosphorous iron ores became minerals only after the invention of the Thomas process, etc. On the other hand, a natural phenomenon harmful at one level of economic development can become useful with the advent of new technology. Before the development of hydroelectricity, waterfalls were only an obstacle to shipping. They are now sources of white coal. Thus, the role of one and the same geographic environment at the ocular stages of historical development can be different. Consequently, the role of the geographic environment in historical geography should be taken into account at each historical stage, and not considered only in the introduction to further presentation.

As indicated in Chapter IV of the "Short Course in the History of VKSChb)", during that very short, from a geological point of view, period of time during which the history of human society developed, there were no fundamental changes in the geographic environment. Therefore, at first glance, it may seem superfluous to include the reconstruction of the natural landscape of the past among the tasks of historical geography. However, this is only at first glance. First, as the same "Short Course" points out, insignificant changes in the geographic environment nevertheless took place during the historical period of the life of human society. These changes in some cases could have some significance, and there is no reason to ignore them. Such changes include changes in the coastline (for example, the formation of the Zuidersee Bay in the Netherlands in the 12th - 13th centuries) 2, changes in the direction of the flow of rivers, clogging of their mouths with sand, etc. point to the Yellow River. Throughout Chinese history, it changed its course many times, and its mouth moved over 700 km, from the Shanghai region to the Tianjin region. Back in the first half of the 19th century. The Yellow River emptied into the sea south of the Shandong Peninsula, but in 1852 it broke through the surrounding dams and, changing the direction of its current, began to flow into the sea north of this peninsula.

Changes in the course of the Yellow River caused enormous disasters to the population of the great Chinese plain, since the river, with these changes, destroyed thousands of villages and vast expanses of fertile fields.

We must take into account that the geographic environment changes especially strongly under the influence of humans. This impact

2 See Demangeon "Belgique - Pays Bas - Luxembourg", p. 24.

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man's impact on nature most of all on the soil and vegetation cover. The cultivated soils of modern Western Europe differ greatly from those soils possessed by the same Europe in the Middle Ages. Many swamps have been drained. The destruction of forests is such a well-known fact that there is no need to dwell on it. You can also point to the digging of the canals, including such as the Suez and Panama canals.

Especially major changes in nature as a result of human activities are taking place in our country. Suffice it to point out the reconstruction of the Volga, which not only makes the Volga deeper than its nature created, but is also accompanied by the creation of a number of large lakes-reservoirs along our great river: the "Moscow Sea", "Rybinsk Sea", etc.

Our and foreign historical geography, as can be seen from the above brief overview, has been involved in the study of the distribution of the population across the territory, and there is no need to explain the essence of the issue and the methods of its study.

As for the geography of production and economic ties, these are the problems that economic geography is dealing with in relation to the present. Historical geography must investigate these questions in relation to the past. This is the most difficult and difficult task, but at the same time and the most gratifying task, since these questions unite all elements of historical geography into a single whole, transform the latter from a collection of disparate facts necessary only for the knowledge of the facts of political history, into a special branch of historical science.

As already indicated above, the influence of the geographic environment on society can be studied only through the study of the influence of this environment on the economy of society. The geography of the population is closely related to the geography of the economy. The connection between the political boundaries of a territory and its economy is also undeniable. When studying the economic geography of the past, it is necessary to conduct research both by branches of the economy and by regions. The complex task of studying the economic regions of the past arises.

Sometimes the opinion is expressed that modern economic regions are the creation of capitalism (if we are talking about capitalist countries) and there are no economic regions in pre-capitalist formations. Of course, before capitalism, regional differences were smaller, but, of course, they were, and even in the very distant past. This has been proven by a number of historical works. As one of the examples, we can cite the characteristics of the economic regions in the state of the Samanids of the 10th century. in the work of A. Yu. Yakubovsky "Feudal societies of Central Asia and their trade with Eastern Europe in the X-XV centuries." 1 .

Localization on the map of geographical names of the past, to which historical geography paid so much attention, of course, remains a necessary preliminary work for historical and geographical research.

All these elements are considered in their interconnection. The study is being conducted both in the whole territory of our country (the general picture of the distribution of the population, agriculture, industry, political and administrative borders, etc.), and in the most important regions. Naturally, the division into regions cannot be the same for the entire history of our country, and it is different for different moments of the historical process. It would be wrong to limit ourselves to only one comparison of historical and geographical characteristics for a number of dates. It is necessary to show how they merge into one another; therefore, the characteristics must be dynamic.

Based on this scheme, we will focus on two specific issues of the historical geography of our homeland: on the general historical and geographical characteristics of our country in the 18th century. and on the historical geography of the Central Black Earth Region in the 16th - 19th centuries.

For the XVIII century. the dynamic historical and geographical characteristics of our country will have to be given separately for the following, almost unconnected economically and then politically weakly connected 1 territories: 1) Eastern Europe and Siberia ,. 2) the Caucasus, 3) Kazakhstan and Central Asia.

The historical and geographical characteristics of Eastern Europe and Siberia in its general, consolidated part will have to consider the change in political borders in Eastern Europe, caused by the conquest of the shores of the Baltic and Black Seas by Russia along with the peoples inhabiting these territories and the inclusion of the Belarusian and most of the Ukrainian peoples in the Russian Empire ... At the same time, the focus should be on the territorial changes themselves, and not on the facts of the military and diplomatic order that were the direct cause of these changes. It is necessary to carefully review the process of colonization of the south and east of the country in this period, the founding of new cities. The ethnic composition of the colonists must be considered. Serious attention should be paid to the development of new, previously not involved in the economic circulation of natural resources - vast expanses of chernozem soils and fossil resources of the Urals, Siberia, and partly also the center and Karelia. It is worth dwelling here on the scientific expeditions of the 18th century. Colonization and the development of new natural resources are closely related to changes in state borders, but they are, of course, not caused by these changes alone, and this should be correctly taken into account in the study. It is necessary to give here the geography of the 18th century manufactories. (by industry) and explain it. Further, attention should be paid to the process of adding up the differences between the consuming and producing bands. When studying economic ties, one should stop at the construction of canals.

For the XVI - XVII centuries. the main questions of the study of this territory will be the landscape of the "Wild Field" of the 16th century, the direction of construction of fortified lines in this "Wild Field", the nature and direction of colonization, the state of agriculture, the construction of cities and the composition of their population.

For the XVIII century. the historian will have to note the completion of colonization and the beginning of the transformation of this area into the agricultural center of the country. The geography of agriculture, the geography of the social composition of the population, the geography of corvee and quitrent, the location of the emerging patrimonial manufactories, the formation of administrative divisions that were established for a long time - these are the main questions of the historical geography of the Central Black Earth Region for this period.

For the first half of the 19th century, when the region turned into an agricultural center and granary of the country, the main attention of the researcher will be paid to the geography of agriculture and serfdom, to the location of patrimonial cloth factories and sugar factories, to the geography of fairs and to the geography of economic ties of the region with neighboring territories and especially with the Central Industrial Region. An important task will be a trip-by-site study of the dynamics of plowing and population growth in the region during this period.

After the reform of 1861, the main factor influencing the life of the region was the so-called impoverishment of the center. This phenomenon has left a heavy imprint on the geography of its population and economy. The roots of this impoverishment lay primarily in the conditions of the elimination of serfdom. Naturally, the geography of these conditions in the central chernozem provinces must be considered. With this geography should be compared with the location of the remnants of serfdom in the region after 1861. The geography of the dynamics of cultivated areas, the growth of which stops, as well as the geography of other agricultural phenomena should be studied. The soil fertility of the region in this era begins to deplete. This phenomenon also needs to be geographically studied. Of course, the geography of railways and industry cannot be ignored. Finally, the geography of the emergence of migrants and out-of-pocket trades should be studied.

In addition, sources for historical geography are also archaeological data, especially necessary for the reconstruction of the economic geography of the distant past. For the study of the change of nationalities in any territory in the distant past, place names are an extremely valuable source. For the reconstruction of a natural landscape, it is also necessary to use data of a natural-historical order.

The nature of the sources is also determined by the method of research in historical geography. This method is primarily the usual historical method (criticism and analysis of historical documents and archaeological data, etc.).

When studying historical sources of a statistical order, it is necessary to use a statistical method, as is usually done in historical and economic research. Using the data of toponymy, the worker of historical geography, if he does not have special linguistic training, has to use the results of the analysis of these data by linguists. When processing natural-historical data for the reconstruction of the natural landscape of the past, it is sometimes necessary to use the methods of the corresponding branches of natural science.

Historians generally regard historical geography as an auxiliary science. This is almost the only point where the opinions of most historians agree on historical geography. Bernheim considers historical geography, together with paleography, diplomacy, sphragistics, heraldry and numismatics, to be an auxiliary science in his famous "Lehrbuch der historischen Methode". Almost all bibliographic reference books on history, such as: published by the international committee on historical sciences "International Bibliography of historical sciences", German reference book "Quellenkunde der deutschen Geschichte von Dahlmann-Waitz", Czech "Bibliografie teske historie Zirbt" a ", Polish" Bibliograf ja historji polskiej "and others. Almost the only exception in this respect is the Swedish" Svensk historisk bibliografi 1875 - 1920 "Setterwall, placing works on historical geography in the department of local history. Geographers are usually not inclined to consider historical geography only a "servant" of history and assign it a more independent position 1.

The traditional opinion of historians at the present time is certainly outdated. Historical geography is undoubtedly developing into a separate branch of historical science. This is easy to see from all that has been said above about the evolution of its content. Indeed, such disciplines as paleography, diplomacy, or sphragistics are usually called auxiliary sciences, because the results of their research are of little independent interest, but are needed as an auxiliary tool for historical research in the proper sense of the word. Paleography is primarily of interest to us as a means of reading ancient manuscripts, and not as a history of writing. The historian does not need diplomacy by itself, but for criticizing documents, etc.

1 See Kfetschmer "Historische Geographie von Mitteleuropa". Einleitung; Oberhummer "Die Aufgaben der historischen Geographie" is a lecture published in the "Verhandlungen des neunten deutschen Geographentages in Wien".

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her work was also mainly of service value. For the science of political history, it was important to know where the places where the events described by it took place and where the borders that arose as a result of the wars in which political history was interested were passed. Courses in historical geography in those days were essentially reference books, which is why they were in the 16th - 18th centuries. even compiled in the form of dictionaries with an alphabetical arrangement of the material. But even later, written in the form of a systematic review, these courses nevertheless, in essence, resembled not ordinary history courses, but like reference books. It is enough to read at least one chapter in such books as the above-named "Historical Geography of Europe" by Freeman to be convinced of this.

Historical geography in its understanding, as I developed it above, is no longer a collection of information of a reference nature, but a certain system of knowledge that is of independent interest.

Should historical geography be included in the field of historical or geographical sciences?

Basically, she processes historical sources using the historical method. Obviously, historical geography is a historical science. This has long been recognized by geographers such as Oberhummer 1. But this does not mean, of course, that work in this field is the monopoly of historians. Geographers can also be productive and have worked in the field of historical geography. Here you can draw an analogy with another branch of historical science - with economic history. After the above-cited indications of the "Short Course in the History of the CPSU (b)", it can hardly be argued that the science of economic history, or the history of the national economy, as we usually call it, is not an organic part of historical science, that work on its problems is not one of the primary tasks of historians. But, on the other hand, in addition to historians, economists are also working successfully in this area.

Geographers themselves point out that the work of geographers on the problems of historical geography does not exclude the latter from the number of historical sciences, for example, Oberhummer says that "a geographer, as soon as he leaves the field of geographical research and begins to study history, ceases to be a naturalist and becomes a historian himself." ... Supan, who wrote an outstanding work on the history of the division of the world, was a major specialist in physical geography, but this circumstance does not make his work a work that does not belong to the number of historical works.

As already mentioned above, the reconstruction of the natural landscape of the past requires, in addition to the use of historical documents, also the use of materials of a natural-historical order. In this area, the researcher has to use the methods of natural science. Therefore, this work can be done with greater success by specialists in physical geography than by historians. The study of the influence of the country's landscape on the economic and political geography of the past is a matter of historical geography.

The development of historical geography in the above understanding can be of great benefit to historical science as a whole. Historical science as an integral system of historical knowledge, historical geography provides a specific spatial localization of the historical process "And so, firstly, it helps to concretize and deepen our understanding of many aspects of the historical process, and secondly, it allows us to catch and explain a number of local features in its development This can also save you from many incorrect generalizations. This is especially important for the history of the national economy, where even V. I. Lenin emphasized the need for regional study. The development of historical geography will also allow us to investigate from methodologically correct positions the role of the geographical environment in the specific historical development of individual countries.

Historical geography can play an important role in the formation of economic geography as a scientific discipline. Economic geography at the present time as a scientific discipline is still in the process of formation. Historical geography should help economic geography in establishing the genesis of specific economic and geographical regions. This is important in itself, but it can also contribute to the establishment of patterns in the formation of economic and geographical regions.

Historical geography can also be useful in teaching history in schools. Until now, elements of historical geography in school teaching have been represented by historical and political maps. A big step forward in school historical cartography was made by the history textbook of the USSR, edited by A. M. Pankratova, which also contains historical and economic maps. In this respect, the textbook edited by A.M. Pankratova is ahead of the history textbook of the USSR for higher educational institutions, where historical and economic maps play not a greater, but a lesser role than in a textbook for secondary schools, while one might expect the opposite.

In textbooks of ancient history, usually, before presenting the histories of ancient Greece, Egypt and Mesopotamia, brief information about the nature of these countries is given. It seems to me that in this respect one could go one step further by introducing small elements of historical geography directly into the exposition. As an example of how to do this, we can cite the characterization of the nature and economy of Attica in the old school German textbook of Kneisel 1. How much more concrete, more vivid, would be the historical ideas of the students with this approach! Yet; to a greater extent, these elements should be included in history courses in higher education. Once A.P. Shchapov protested against the fact that in his contemporary history courses, after the mention in the first chapter, "land and people" somewhere "fell through" and "only one state remained." A similar reproach is now being presented by our geographers to historians. Yu. Saushkin writes in the journal Geography in School (No. 4, 1940) about the history textbook of the USSR for higher education, that it is distinguished by "almost complete disregard for the role of the geographic environment in the development of the USSR and its individual parts; historical events in this

1 Kneisel "Leitfaden der historischen Geographie". Berlin. 1874. The book is a textbook for gymnasiums.

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Despite the revival of interest in historical geography in the USSR, very little is still involved in it, much less than in bourgeois countries. Bourgeois historical geography must be contrasted with Marxist. Historical and geographical topics should be included in the plans of our research institutions, historical and geographical. The creation of an academic historical atlas of the USSR is especially relevant. This is a lot of work. Historical atlases abroad have been created over the years. When carrying out this work, it is necessary to take into account all the accumulated experience. It is also necessary to organize the collection, systematization and study of our geographical names, just as it was done in Germany, England and France. Finally, historical geography must acquire citizenship rights in our higher education institutions.

From the editor. It should be noted the importance of the issues raised in the article by Comrade. Q. There is no one for the poison. The state of affairs with regard to historical geography in our research institutions and higher educational institutions is completely unsatisfactory.

The editorial board of the journal believes that the Committee for Higher Education, People's Commissars and Universities should take the necessary measures to change the existing situation in the study of historical geography in higher educational institutions. Our historical research institutions must, at last, include in their plans the elaboration of the problems of historical geography.

The editorial board asks historical institutions and scientific workers to express themselves on the merits of the issues raised in the article by Comrade Yatsunsky, and on practical measures necessary for the development of scientific research and teaching of historical and geographical knowledge in the system of historical education.