Geography of India: relief, natural resources, climate, flora and fauna. Geographical boundaries and natural conditions of ancient India

home For many centuries it was subjected to raids by various tribes. Naturally, they all left their mark on genetic diversity

. It is thanks to the mixture of different races that the people of India have a distinctive appearance and culture. The Aryan tribes came here first. They mixed with the Tibeto-Burman peoples who penetrated into the territory of modern India from behind the Himalayas.

Such different people of India What helped Indians maintain ethnic diversity? The answer is simple. It's all about the caste system. That is why on Indian streets you can meet the most different people

, even Caucasian type. That is, the inhabitants of India are ethnically heterogeneous. For example, representatives of the Aryan type are distinguished by a coffee-colored skin tone. It is noteworthy that in higher castes, skin color is usually lighter. India is usually different beautiful oval faces, straight hair (less thick than that of representatives of the northern and central Europe

) and a slightly curved nose. Their height, as a rule, does not exceed 185 cm. Using the example of the Dards, it is best to draw a conclusion about the physical characteristics of the Aryan tribes. They are a simple-minded, open-minded race with brown eyes and straight black hair.

What makes a native Indian different? Like any nation, Indians are not without their own charm. The people of India have a peculiar mental make-up. Perhaps this is due to the ancient traditions that are still strong in India, or perhaps due to the fact that this territory has been subject to raids by various conquerors over the centuries. Indians are emotional, but they skillfully hide their feelings; they are sometimes overly polite and unreliable. Strengths

This race - hard work, openness, cleanliness, moderation, respect for science, goodwill. Indians always know how to create an atmosphere of relaxed communication and can show their interlocutor that they are interesting. Like the inhabitants of modern Indians, they live according to the ancient scriptures - the Vedas. According to these texts, a person should express his love and devotion to God through his daily actions and not just through rituals. Even cleaning can be a means of serving one of the gods, which in India. Worship of them can be expressed in creativity, and in everyday affairs, and in raising children, and in communicating with other people. All activities should be a stage of self-improvement.

Don't call Indians Indians!

No less important is the question of what the inhabitants of India are called. Contrary to popular belief, they should be called Indians and not Hindus. Hindus are followers of Hinduism, the dominant religion in India. Indians should not be confused with Indians.

Indigenous people North America Columbus mistakenly called them Indians because he thought he had sailed to distant and mysterious India.

Civil rights movement in India

Indians are a very active nation. Processes are currently taking place in society aimed at abolishing caste and improving the status of women. All this is closely interconnected with reforms in social sphere. They mainly concern the improvement of the status of women. Indians support legalization civil marriage, for raising the marriageable age of both girls and boys. An equally important issue is expanding educational opportunities for women, as well as improving the situation of Indian widows.

As a result of similar processes, several changes were introduced. Thus, the marriageable age for girls was set at 14 years, for boys - 18 years. If one of the parties is under 21 years of age, written parental consent is required. Consanguineous marriages and polygamy were also prohibited. But the advantages of this law, unfortunately, did not become public knowledge. Only a small part was able to enjoy its benefits. The fact is that even now it is a widespread practice for a girl to formally marry at the age of 10. Of course, the actual ceremony is postponed until the bride is more mature - up to 12-14 years maximum. Such early marriages have a bad effect not only on the mental and physical health women, but also on the welfare of the Indian race as a whole.

Status of Widows in India

The point is also that if a married girl-woman becomes a widow, she will no longer be able to marry. Moreover, in her husband’s family, she will be doomed to do the hardest work until the end of her days and will not have to wear new beautiful clothes. Also, the unfortunate widow not only receives the worst food from the table, but also must fast for many days. In order to somehow improve the position of widows in society (including many children), it is necessary to ensure that remarriage is not considered something shameful and disgraceful. Currently, widow remarriage is only possible if she belongs to a lower caste. To top all the troubles, a woman whose husband has died in Indian society cannot earn her own livelihood.

Indian education

It is especially worth noting the Indian education system, as it is considered one of the largest in the world. Interestingly, in order to enter a university, you do not need to pass any exams. Apart from regular universities, India also has educational establishments with certain specifics, for example, the Women's Institute in Bombay. Despite the fact that technical specialties are considered leading in the field of education, the number of graduates from humanities universities is about 40%. In fact, technical professions play a very important role in the development of human resources and The education system is also related to the question of how many people there are in India. According to the most recent data, about 1 million.

Indian occupations

The main occupations of the people of India are traditionally agriculture and cattle breeding. Many are involved in the light industry, which is currently developing dynamically. Despite this, most of India's population lives almost below the poverty line. The fact is that until relatively recently this country was therefore the colonial past cannot but affect the lives of Indians.

Religion: "Shiva without Shakti is shava"

More than 80% of the population professes Hinduism - the most widespread and ancient religion in Asia. Therefore, it is not surprising that culture is closely connected with it. The basic tenets of Hinduism were established in Art. 6. BC. After this, the entire culture began to be built around this system.

Hinduism is a mythological religion. It is noteworthy that the pantheon consists of a great variety of gods. But the most revered is the trinmurti - Vishnu-Brahma-Shiva. And if Vishnu is the keeper of the world, Brahma is the creator, then Shiva is the destroyer. But he is not just a destroyer, he is also the beginning of all things. Gods have several arms as a symbol of their divine functions and are necessarily depicted with their attributes. For example, Vishnu - with a disk, Shiva - with a trident, Brahma - with the Vedas. In addition, Shiva is always depicted with three eyes as symbols of his wisdom. In parallel with Trinmurti, goddesses - "Shakti" - are also revered. These are not just female deities. They harmoniously complement the spouses, making up one whole with them. There is even such an expression: “Shiva without Shakti is shava (corpse).” The oldest in India, in parallel with the veneration of Trinmurti, is the cult of animals. For example, for a Hindu, neither killing a cow nor eating beef is unthinkable. Many animals in India are sacred.

Natural conditions

India, in terms of the size of its territory and the number of its population, already in the distant past, just as now, was one of the most large countries Asia. Sharp edges created by nature itself cut her off from outside world and made it difficult to communicate with other countries and peoples.

In the south, southwest and southeast it is washed by vast expanses of water of the Indian Ocean, the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal. In the north it is closed by the greatest and highest mountain range in the world - the Himalayas. Mountain barriers, although not so insurmountable, are quite powerful, separating India in the west from Iran and in the east from Indochina.

India was largely provided for natural resources, necessary for human life, and had relatively little need for imported products. The flora and fauna of the country were exceptionally rich and diverse. In addition to wheat and barley, rice began to be grown here in ancient times, which first came from India to Western Asia, Africa and Europe. From others cultivated plants, acquaintance with whom more Western countries were indebted to India, it should be noted sugar cane and cotton, not to mention spices.

India had inexhaustible sources of all kinds of valuable raw materials (stone, metallurgical ores, timber). All this provided the opportunity for economic development, largely independent, which excluded the penetration of other tribes and nationalities, as well as foreign trade (mainly through Iran and Central Asia).

The most ancient agricultural zones of India were the basins of two great rivers: the Indus with its five tributaries (the Five Rivers - Punjab), which gave the country its name, and the Ganges, which also receives a number of tributaries. Later developed Agriculture in the southern part of the country, on the Dekhan Peninsula.

Irrigated agriculture began to flourish early in the Indus and upper Ganges valleys. In other places, farmers depended on atmospheric precipitation. Special meaning the country has summer monsoons, coming from the southwest large quantities moisture.

Population

The oldest Indian literary monuments, as well as the testimonies of ancient authors, have preserved memories of the exceptionally dense population of ancient India. This country surpassed Egypt and Western Asia in terms of population, and only China could compete with it in this regard.

The ethnic composition of the inhabitants of India in ancient times was extremely diverse. In the south, dark-skinned tribes belonging to the Australo-Negroid race predominated. The most ancient inhabitants of the country spoke Dravidian, and partly even earlier, pre-Dravidian languages ​​(Munda language, etc.), currently spoken only in some areas. In the 2nd millennium BC. Tribes speaking the languages ​​of the Indo-European family of peoples begin to spread in India. Based on these languages, it was developed literary language– Sanskrit (meaning “purified”). Unlike him spoken languages were called prakrits.

These later ethnic groups, who were settlers from the northwest, called themselves Aryans. This ethnic name later acquired the meaning “noble,” since the conquerors looked down on the conquered local population and claimed superiority. However, there is no need to talk about the advantages of this or that group.

Everything depended on the conditions of development at a given historical moment.

Sources

A significant part of the primary sources on the history of ancient India has perished irretrievably.

The situation is worse with the ancient chronicles. Almost nothing remains of them, except for fragments included in later medieval chronicles.

The largest in volume and richest in content are the poetic works: the Vedas (extensive collections of hymns, chants, magical spells and ritual formulas - Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda and Atharvaveda), Mahabharata (epic poem about the great war of the descendants of Bharata) and Ramayana (the tale of the deeds of Prince Rama).

In addition to mythical and epic works, the collection “Laws of Manu” has also been preserved, the chronological fixation of which also presents great difficulties (c. 3rd century BC – c. 3rd century AD). This typical monument sacred law, in which civil and criminal regulations are closely intertwined with ritual regulations and prohibitions.

A unique written monument is the Arthashastra, the composition of which is attributed to the outstanding dignitary, contemporary of Alexander the Great, Kautilya. This remarkable treatise on government contains a whole series of advice and instructions reflecting the conditions of the era when centralization and bureaucratization were established in the country.

For the study of early Buddhism, the main source is the collection of legends and sayings of the Tipitaka.

The edicts of King Ashoka (III century BC), carved on rocks, are most accurately dated. They report on the warriors and religious policies of this king.

Among the ancient authors, along with Herodotus, who gave a description of western India of his time (5th century BC), Arrian, who lived in the 2nd century, should be especially noted. AD In his “Anabasis of Alexander” he described the campaign of this king to India, in a special work - “India” - he gave a detailed geographical outline of the country.

Monuments of material culture shed a lot of light on various moments of ancient Indian history. Yes, thanks archaeological excavations, which began in the 20s of our century in the Indus basin, the proto-Indian culture of the 3rd - 2nd millennia BC became known, characterizing the country in the era preceding the overpopulation of the Aryans and the emergence of ancient literature in Sanskrit.

Periodization of history.

History Ancient India can be divided into the following periods:

1. The most ancient (Indus) civilization (XXIII-XVIII centuries BC) - the emergence of the first cities, the formation of early states in the Indus River valley.

2. The Vedic period, so named after the sacred literature of the Vedas created at that time (end of the 2nd millennium - 7th century BC):

1) early Vedic (XII-X centuries BC) - settlement of Indo-European Aryan tribes in Northern India;

2) late Vedic (IX-VII centuries BC) - the formation of the first states in the Ganges valley.

3. The Buddhist period (VI-III centuries BC) - the time of the emergence and spread of Buddhism. This period is characterized by the rapid development of cities, the emergence large states, the creation of an all-Indian Mauryan state.

4. Classical era (II century BC - V century AD) - the flourishing of the economy and culture, the formation of the caste system.

The richness of Indian nature lies in its diversity. 3/4 of the country's territory is occupied by plains and plateaus. India resembles a huge triangle with its apex pointing at. Along the base of the Indian triangle stretch the mountain systems of the Karakoram, Gindukusha and the Himalayas.

South of the Himalayas lies the vast, fertile Indo-Gangetic Plain. To the west of the Indo-Gangetic Plain stretches the barren Thar Desert.

Further south is the Deccan Plateau, which occupies most of the central and southern parts. The plateau is bordered on both sides by the mountains of the Eastern and Western Ghats; their foothills are occupied by tropical forests.

The climate of India over most of its territory is subequatorial, monsoon. In the north and northwest it is tropical, with precipitation of about 100 mm/year. On the windward slopes of the Himalayas, 5000-6000 mm of precipitation falls per year, and in the center of the peninsula - 300-500 mm. IN summer period up to 80% of all precipitation falls.

The largest rivers of India - the Ganges, Indus, Brahmaputra - originate in the mountains and are fed by snow, glaciers and rain. The rivers of the Deccan Plateau are fed by rain. During the winter monsoon, the rivers of the plateau dry up.

In the north of the country, brown-red and red-brown savanna soils predominate, in the center - black and gray tropical and red soil laterint soils. In the south there are yellow earth and red earth soils, which developed on lava covers. The coastal lowlands and river valleys are covered with rich alluvial soils.

The natural vegetation of India has been greatly modified by man. Monsoon forests Only 10-15% of the original area has been preserved. Every year, the forest area in India is reduced by 1.5 million hectares. Acacias and palm trees grow in savannas. IN subtropical forests- sandalwood, teak, bamboo, coconut palms. Altitudinal zones are clearly defined in the mountains.

India has a rich and diverse animal world: deer, antelope, elephants, tigers, Himalayan bears, rhinoceroses, panthers, monkeys, wild boars, many snakes, birds, fish.

India's recreational resources are of global importance: coastal, historical, cultural, architectural, etc.

India has significant reserves. Manganese deposits are concentrated in the central and eastern India. The subsoil of India is rich in chromites, uranium, thorium, copper, bauxite, gold, magnesite, mica, diamonds, precious and semi-precious stones.

Coal reserves in the country amount to 120 billion tons (Bihar and West Bengal). India's oil and gas are concentrated in the Asamu Valley and the Gujarat plains, as well as on the Arabian Sea shelf near Bombay.

Unfavorable natural phenomena In India, there are droughts, earthquakes, floods (8 million hectares), fires, melting of snow in the mountains, soil erosion (the country loses 6 billion tons), desertification in western India, and deforestation.

It is no secret that people and nature of Ancient India have always been connected with each other. This influence is reflected in culture, art and religion. India is a country of untold riches and amazing secrets that scientists have yet to discover.

Nature

Hindustan is a huge peninsula located in the south of Asia, which is, as it were, separated from the surrounding world by the Himalayas - a majestic mountain range on one side and Indian Ocean- with another. Only a few passages in gorges and valleys connect this country with other peoples and neighboring states. The Deccan plateau occupies almost its entire central part. Scientists are sure that it was here that the civilization of Ancient India originated.

The great rivers Indus and Ganges originate somewhere in the mountain ranges of the Himalayas. The waters of the latter are considered sacred by the inhabitants of the country. As for the climate, it is very humid and hot, so most of India is covered with jungle. These impenetrable forests are home to tigers, panthers, monkeys, elephants, many species poisonous snakes and other animals.

Local occupations

It is no secret that scientists have always been interested in the nature of Ancient India and the people who inhabited this territory since time immemorial. The main occupation of the local people was considered settled agriculture. Most often, settlements arose along the banks of rivers, since here were the most fertile soils, suitable for the cultivation of wheat, rice, barley and vegetables. In addition, the inhabitants made sweet powder from sugar cane, which grew in abundance in this swampy area. This product was the oldest sugar in the world.

The Indians also grew cotton in their fields. The finest yarn was made from it, which was then turned into comfortable and lightweight fabrics. They were perfectly suited for this hot climate. In the north of the country, where precipitation was less frequent, ancient people built complex irrigation systems similar to those in Egypt.

The Indians were also involved in gathering. They knew both useful and harmful properties most of the flowers and plants they know. Therefore, we figured out which of them could simply be eaten, and which ones could be used to make spices or incense. The rich nature of India is so diverse that it gave the inhabitants plants that were not found anywhere else, and they, in turn, learned to cultivate them and use them to their maximum benefit. A little later, a wide variety of spices and incense attracted many merchants from different countries.

Civilization

Ancient India with its extraordinary culture existed already in the 3rd millennium BC. The civilizations of such major cities as Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro also date back to around this time, where people knew how to build two- and even three-story houses using baked bricks. At the beginning of the 20th century, British archaeologists managed to find the ruins of these ancient settlements.

Mohenjo-Daro turned out to be especially amazing. As scientists have suggested, this city was built over more than one century. Its territory covered an area of ​​250 hectares. Researchers have discovered straight streets here with tall buildings. Some of them rose more than seven meters. Presumably, these were buildings of several floors, where there were no windows or any decorations. However, in the living quarters there were rooms for ablutions, into which water was supplied from special wells.

The streets in this city were located in such a way that they ran from north to south, as well as from east to west. Their width reached ten meters, and this allowed scientists to assume that its inhabitants were already using carts on wheels. In the center of ancient Mohenjo-Daro, a building was built with a huge pool. Scientists have still not been able to accurately determine its purpose, but they have put forward the version that it is a city temple erected in honor of the god of water. Not far from it there was a market, spacious craft workshops and granaries. The city center was surrounded by a powerful fortress wall, where, most likely, they were hiding local residents when they were in danger.

Art

In addition to the amazing layout of cities and extraordinary buildings, during large-scale excavations that began in 1921, it was found a large number of various religious and household items used by their residents. From them one can judge the high development of applied and jewelry art of Ancient India. The seals discovered at Mohenjo-Daro were decorated with beautiful carvings, indicating some similarities between the two cultures: the Indus Valley and Mesopotamia of Akkad and Sumer. Most likely, these two civilizations were connected by trade relations.

Pottery found on site ancient city, differ great variety. The polished and shiny vessels were covered with ornaments, where images of plants and animals were harmoniously combined. Most often these were containers covered in red paint with black drawings applied to them. Multi-colored ceramics were very rare. Concerning visual arts Ancient India of the period from the end of the 2nd to the middle of the 1st millennium BC, then it was not preserved at all.

Scientific achievements

Scientists of Ancient India were able to achieve great success in various branches of knowledge and, in particular, in mathematics. Here, for the first time, the decimal number system appeared, which involved the use of zero. This is what all of humanity still uses. Around the 3rd-2nd millennia BC during the civilization of Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa, according to modern scientists, Indians already knew how to count in tens. Those numbers that we use to this day are usually called Arabic. In fact, they were originally called Indian.

The most famous mathematician of Ancient India, who lived in the Gupta era, which is the 4th-6th centuries, is Aryabhata. He was able to systematize decimal system and formulate rules for solving linear and indefinite equations, extracting cubic and square roots and much more. The Indian believed that the number π was 3.1416.

Another proof that people and nature of ancient India are inextricably linked is Ayurveda or the science of life. It is impossible to determine exactly what period of history it belongs to. The depth of knowledge that the ancient Indian sages possessed is simply amazing! Many modern scientists rightfully consider Ayurveda the ancestor of almost all medical directions. And this is not surprising. It formed the basis of Arabic, Tibetan and Chinese medicine. Ayurveda incorporates basic knowledge of biology, physics, chemistry, natural history and cosmology.

Mysteries of Ancient India: Qutub Minar

20 km from old Delhi in the fortified city of Lal Kot there is a mysterious metal pillar. This is the Qutub Minar, made of an unknown alloy. Researchers are still at a loss, and some of them are inclined to think that it is of alien origin. The column is about 1600 years old, but for 15 centuries it has not rusted. It seems that the ancient craftsmen were able to create chemically pure iron, which is difficult to obtain even in our time, having the most modern technologies. All Ancient world and India in particular are full of extraordinary mysteries that scientists have not yet been able to unravel.

Reasons for decline

It is believed that the disappearance of the Harappan civilization is associated with the arrival of the northwestern Aryan tribes to these lands in 1800 BC. These were warlike nomadic conquerors who bred large cattle and ate mainly dairy products. The Aryans first began to destroy large cities. Over time, the surviving buildings began to fall into disrepair, and new houses were built from old bricks.

Another version of scientists regarding the nature and people of Ancient India is that not only the enemy invasion of the Aryans contributed to the disappearance of the Harappan civilization, but also a significant deterioration of the environment. They do not exclude such a reason as sudden change level sea ​​water, which could lead to numerous floods, and then to the emergence of various epidemics caused by terrible diseases.

Social structure

One of the many features of Ancient India is the division of people into castes. This stratification of society occurred around the 1st millennium BC. Its emergence was due to both religious views and political system. With the arrival of the Aryans, almost the entire local population began to be classified as a lower caste.

At the highest level were the brahmans - priests who ruled religious cults and did not engage in heavy physical labor. They lived solely on the sacrifices of believers. One step lower was the caste of Kshatriyas - warriors, with whom the Brahmans did not always get along, since they often could not share power among themselves. Next came the Vaishyas - shepherds and peasants. Below were the sudras who did only the dirtiest work.

Consequences of delamination

The society of Ancient India was structured in such a way that the caste affiliation of people was inherited. For example, the children of Brahmins, growing up, became priests, and the children of Kshatriyas became exclusively warriors. Such division only hindered the further development of society and the country as a whole, since many talented people could not realize themselves and were doomed to live in eternal poverty.

Every tourist takes it into account when choosing a country for his next visit. climatic features and the best time to visit. Having chosen India for your trip, you should explore weather this country and choose the ones that are ideal for you.

Nature and climate of India

India is located in a subequatorial zone with a tropical climate. The country is dominated by hot weather with the monsoon season, when several dry months are followed by a series of rainy ones. Due to this feature, the nature here is extremely diverse. The snow-capped peaks of the Himalayas, the desert plains of central India and the jungles with an abundance of flora and fauna - a riot of bright colors, a variety of exotic flowers and. A huge number of people live here various types animals, including those listed in the Red Book, such as asian elephant, Bengal tiger, clouded leopard. The northern part of India, as well as part of the central part, repeat in their cycles the winter and summer periods close to us. For example, in the Himalayas, the coldest season lasts from early December to mid-April, during which time the temperature drops to sub-zero levels and there is a huge amount of snow in the mountains. In New Delhi in mid-January, the temperature at night drops to plus five degrees, while during the day it can rise to plus twenty-five. This means that you should take care of your clothes and carefully think through your wardrobe, and it’s better if things are made from natural fabrics.

The central part of India, located on a plateau, has a fairly mild climate for these latitudes, due to the fact that the territory is located high above sea level. The summer-autumn rainy period gives way to a dry winter-spring period. In winter, due to sharp changes in daily temperature, fogs are very frequent, so traveling by vehicle becomes unsafe. IN winter months temperatures are the lowest, during the day the temperature does not exceed plus twenty-five degrees. Best time to visit central India - from November to March.

Climate of ancient India

In ancient times, the territory of India was much larger, the climate was more humid, as in modern times, it was determined by the country’s position relative to the Himalayas - the world’s highest mountain peaks. The areas that were not part of the mountainous part were everywhere covered with impenetrable jungle and swampy areas. But in very ancient times, several hundred million years ago, Hindustan drifted, separating from Africa, into Asia.

Climate of Goa

The state of Goa has always attracted the greatest interest among tourists visiting India. This is a popular resort among foreigners and locals, a kind of Indian Sochi, where wealthy Indians from all over the country come. IN southern parts In India, and in Goa in particular, temperatures remain consistently between plus twenty-five and thirty-five degrees, with temperatures dropping at night during the winter months to plus fifteen. The climate of Goa is more humid, the proximity of the ocean greatly affects the feeling of comfort - strong humidity, especially during the period when it rains, causes a lot of inconvenience to people with respiratory diseases.

At this time, you should not be surprised by damp linen and mold on the walls in inexpensive hotels. In the period from November to April there is practically no precipitation, daytime temperatures are stable, and nighttime temperatures sometimes rise to daytime temperatures. From May to October it rains almost every day, sometimes causing widespread flooding in the state.

Weather by month in Goa

The best time to visit Goa is from December to February (January-February is the season for delicious avocados). Temperature and humidity during this period are optimal, although at night it can be cool on the coast. IN high season the most observed big number of foreign tourists in Goa, all sorts of events are regularly held in Goa and neighboring states.

Starting in March, it becomes hotter and more humid, followed by the rainy season in May-June. It lasts here until the end of October. Moreover, the bulk of precipitation occurs in the summer. At the end of spring and beginning of autumn, the rains are short-lived and quickly replaced by the scorching sun. Prices for services, tickets and accommodation increase during the high season, so those who like to save money should consider visiting Goa in April or October. The weather in Goa at this time is quite comfortable, the number of tourists is noticeably less.

It is worth noting that at the end of April - beginning of May, delicious local mangoes appear on the shelves of local fruit stalls. In contrast to the large yellow-red fruits brought here from other Indian states, local fruits are small in size and have a greenish-yellow color. After the rainy season in October and early November, ocean waters are far from ideal. Heavy rains wash downed trees and household debris into the ocean. From mid-April until just before the start of the new rainy season, the ocean is choppy, big waves pose a danger, especially on rocky beaches such as Vagator and Anjuna. And also at this time water snakes appear.