Mimicry (imitative resemblance). Protective coloration in animals. Mimicry, camouflage and protective coloration The role of passive protection in the life of animals

home

Current page: 11 (book has 19 pages total) [available reading passage: 13 pages]

100% +

Font:

34. Main directions of evolution

Remember! Life forms of plants and animals

Predators

There are three main directions of evolution, each of which leads to the prosperity of a group of organisms: 1) aromorphosis (morphophysiological progress); 2) idioadaptation; 3) general degeneration. Aromorphosis (from Greek Iroh - I raise, morph – pattern, form) means increasing the complexity of the structural and functional organization, raising it to a higher level. Changes in the structure of animals as a result of aromorphosis are not adaptations to any special conditions environment they wear general character and allow wider use of the conditions external environment

(new food sources, new habitats).

Aromorphoses provide a transition from passive to active nutrition (the appearance of jaws in vertebrates), increase the mobility of animals (the appearance of the skeleton as a place of attachment of muscles and the replacement of layers of smooth muscles in worms with bundles of striated muscles in arthropods), respiratory function (the appearance of gills and lungs), supply of tissues with oxygen (the appearance of the heart in fish and the separation of arterial and venous blood flow in birds and mammals). All these changes, without being partial adaptations to specific environmental conditions, increase the intensity of animal activity and reduce their dependence on living conditions.

All aromorphoses are preserved during further evolution and lead to the emergence of new large systematic groups - classes, types, and some orders (in mammals). Aromorphosis Idiomatic adaptation idiot - peculiarity, adaptation - adaptation) - adaptation to special environmental conditions, useful in the struggle for existence, but not changing the level of organization of animals or plants. Since each type of organism lives in certain habitats, it develops adaptations specifically to these conditions. TO Idioadaptations include the protective coloration of animals, the spines of plants, the flat body shape of stingrays and flounder. Depending on living conditions and lifestyle, the five-fingered limb of mammals undergoes numerous transformations. In Figure 66, consider how diverse the shapes of the limbs are among representatives of the orders of rodents and lagomorphs. In the same way, differences in the appearance and details of the structure of animals belonging to the orders of artiodactyls and calloseds (Fig. 67) are caused by unequal conditions of their existence.

After the occurrence of aromorphoses and especially when a group of animals leaves new environment habitat, the adaptation of individual populations to the conditions of existence begins precisely through idioadaptations. Thus, the class of birds in the process of settling over land gave an enormous variety of forms. Considering the structure of hummingbirds, sparrows, canaries, eagles, gulls, parrots, pelicans, penguins, etc., we can come to the conclusion that all the differences between them come down to private adaptations, although the main structural features of all birds are the same (Fig. 68 , 69).

The extreme degree of adaptation to limited living conditions is called specializations. Eating only one type of food and living in a homogeneous and constant environment lead to the fact that organisms cannot live outside these conditions. These are hummingbirds that feed only on the nectar of flowers. tropical plants, anteaters, specializing in feeding exclusively on ants, chameleons, adapted to living on thin tree branches.

Rice. 66. Species of rodents (3–8) and lagomorphs (1,2)

Rice. 67. Species of artiodactyls (1–6) and calloseds (7)

Rice. 68. The characteristic shape of the beak of the pine crossbill, which feeds on pine seeds, differs sharply from the beaks of birds whose food is insects or seeds of other plants

Rice. 69. The shape of the beak in different types of finches depends on the nature of the food

Rice. 70. Trichinella from muscle tissue

The transition to a sedentary lifestyle and passive feeding (for example, ascidian - see Fig. 34) is accompanied by a simplification of organization and elimination of competition with other species, which also leads to the preservation of the species.

1. Name the main directions of evolution of organisms.

2. Give examples of aromorphoses in plants.

3. Look at Figures 66 and 67. Give examples of idioadaptations in mammals.

5. Do you agree with the statement that general degeneration can contribute to biological prosperity and success? Give reasons for your answer.

6. What biological mechanism ensures the movement of groups of organisms in one or another evolutionary direction?

7. Is it possible to say that evolution can be both progressive and regressive? Justify your answer.

Work with computer

Search on the Internet

35. Types of evolutionary changes

34. Main directions of evolution

Homologous organs Leaf modifications

Modifications of shoots Burrowing animals

Jumping animals Crawling animals

Divergence. The emergence of new forms is always associated with adaptation to local geographical and environmental conditions of existence. Thus, the class of mammals consists of numerous orders, whose representatives differ in the type of food, characteristics of habitats, i.e., living conditions (insectivores, chiropterans, predators, artiodactyls, cetaceans, etc.). Each of these orders includes suborders and families, which, in turn, are characterized not only by specific morphological characters, but also environmental features(forms running, jumping, climbing, digging, swimming). Within any family, species and genera differ in lifestyle, food items, etc.

As Darwin pointed out, the basis of the entire evolutionary process lies divergence(from lat. divergo– I’m deviating, I’m leaving). This is the process of divergence of characteristics of organisms arising from common ancestor, during their adaptation to different conditions a habitat. Not only species, but also genera, families, and orders can diverge.

The leaves of plants, depending on the conditions, can turn into tendrils (in peas), into needles (in barberry), into spines (in cactus), but all these are modified leaves. Lily of the valley rhizome, potato tubers, bulb onions, so different in appearance, are modified shoots. The basis of divergent evolution is a common gene pool. Family ties between groups of organisms formed during the process of divergence can be established by studying homologous organs– organs that have a common origin and a similar structure (see § 12).

Convergence. Under the same conditions of existence, animals belonging to different, often distant, systematic groups can acquire a similar structure. Such similarity of structure arises with similarity of functions and is limited only to organs directly related to the same environmental factors. This phenomenon is called convergence(from lat. Convergo- getting closer, getting closer).

At the same time, the historically established organization as a whole never undergoes convergence. Outwardly, chameleons and climbing agamas that live on tree branches are very similar, although they belong to different suborders (Fig. 71). Convergent similarities are found in the limbs of different animals leading a burrowing lifestyle (Fig. 72). The same lifestyle of marsupials and placental mammals led them independently of each other to the similarity of many structural features. The European mole and the marsupial mole, the marsupial flyer and the flying squirrel are similar, the marsupial wolf resembles a “real” wolf. A striking example of the emergence of similar structures in unrelated groups of organisms is the structure of the eye of an octopus and a human (Fig. 73).

Organisms capable of flight have wings and other adaptations (Fig. 74). But the wings of a bird and a bat are modified forelimbs, and the wings of a butterfly are outgrowths of the body wall.

During the development of land, unrelated groups of animals, arthropods and vertebrates, develop adaptations to retain water in the body - dense integuments with a waterproof outer layer. Most aquatic animals are characterized by the excretion of nitrogen metabolism products in the form of ammonia with big amount water. In terrestrial animals, nitrogen is released in the form of uric acid, which allows for maximum reduction of water consumption. Thus, in the process of evolution, physiological improvement of unrelated organisms is carried out in similar ways on the basis of structures of different origins. Such organs, which have different origins but perform similar functions, are called similar bodies.

Rice. 71. Chameleon (left) and climbing agama (right)

Rice. 72. Convergent similarity of limbs of an insect (mole cricket, left) and mammal (mole, right), leading a burrowing lifestyle

Rice. 73. Structure of the eye of an octopus (A) and a human (B): 7 – optic nerve; 2 – retina; 3 – vitreous body; 4 – lens; 5 – iris; 6 – anterior chamber of the eye; 7 – cornea

Rice. 74. Adaptations for gliding flight in mammals, reptiles and amphibians. In the photo: lizard (top) and flying squirrels (bottom)

Irreversibility of evolution. TO general rules The rule of irreversibility of evolutionary transformations applies to the evolution of groups of living organisms. So, if at some stage reptiles arose from primitive amphibians, then with further evolution reptiles cannot give rise to amphibians again, and amphibians, in turn, will not turn into fish over time. The terrestrial vertebrates that returned to the water (among reptiles - ichthyosaurs, among mammals - cetaceans and pinnipeds) did not become fish. The previous history of development for any group of organisms does not pass without a trace, and adaptation to the environment in which the ancestors once lived is carried out on a different genetic basis.

Review questions and assignments

1. What determines the divergence of characters in related groups of organisms and the appearance of external similarity in unrelated ones?

2. Expand and compare the content of the concepts “divergence” and “convergence”.

3. Give examples of similar and homologous organs. How can you prove that the named structures belong to one or another group of organs?

4. Prove that the divergent or convergent development of groups of living organisms is adaptive in nature. Give examples.

5. What is the essence of the irreversibility of evolution?

Work with computer

Refer to the electronic application. Study the lesson material and complete the assigned tasks.

Search on the Internet sites, the materials of which can serve as an additional source of information that reveals the content of the key concepts of the paragraph.

Get ready for the next lesson. Using additional sources of information (books, articles, Internet resources, etc.), make a report on keywords and phrases in the next paragraph.

Chapter 13. Adaptation of organisms to environmental conditions as a result of evolution

Plants and animals are amazingly adapted to the environmental conditions in which they live. The concept of “adaptability of a species” includes not only external signs, but also the conformity of the structure internal organs the functions they perform (for example, the long and complex digestive tract of ruminants that feed plant foods). The correspondence of the physiological functions of an organism to their living conditions, their complexity and diversity are also included in the concept of fitness.

Indicators of good fitness of a group of organisms are its high numbers, wide range and a large number of subordinate systematic groups. A systematic group (species, genus, family, etc.) is in a state of prosperity, or biological progress, if it includes a significant number of systematic groups of lower rank. For example, within an order there are always numerous families, which in turn include big number genera, which are also rich in their constituent species. Thus, biological progress represents the result of success in the struggle for existence.

Absence required level fitness leads to a depressed state of the taxonomic group – biological regression– reduction in numbers, reduction in range, reduction in the number of systematic groups of lower rank. Biological regression is fraught with the danger of extinction. For example, as a result of increased shooting, the number of sables has sharply decreased and the distribution area has narrowed. The Ussuri tiger, bowhead whale, sand cat and other animals are on the verge of extinction.

36. Adaptive features of the structure and behavior of animals

34. Main directions of evolution

Protective coloration Warning coloring

Adaptive behavior Demonstrative behavior

Mimicry Tiger Zebra Turtle Scat Flounder

In animals it is adaptive body shape. The appearance of an aquatic mammal, the dolphin, is well known. Its movements are light and precise, and its speed in water reaches 40 km/h. The density of water is 800 times higher than the density of air. How does the dolphin manage to overcome it? This is facilitated by the torpedo-shaped shape of its body, due to which turbulences in the flow of water flowing around the dolphin do not form that inhibit the movement.

The streamlined shape of the body facilitates the rapid movement of animals in the air. The flight and contour feathers covering the bird's body completely smooth out its shape. Birds do not have protruding ears; they usually retract their legs in flight. As a result, they are far superior to all other animals in their speed of movement. For example, the peregrine falcon dives at its prey at speeds of up to 290 km/h. Birds move quickly even in water. Observed chinstrap penguin, floating underwater at a speed of about 35 km/h.

In animals that lead a hidden lifestyle, adaptations that give them a resemblance to objects are useful. environment. This method of protection is called disguise. The bizarre body shape of fish living in algae thickets (Fig. 75, 76) helps them successfully hide from enemies. Similarity to objects in their environment is widespread among insects. There are known beetles that in appearance resemble lichens, cicadas, similar to the thorns of the bushes among which they live. Stick insects and moth caterpillars look like brown or green twigs (Fig. 78), and some insects imitate the leaves of trees and shrubs among which they live (Fig. 77, 79). Fish that lead a bottom-dwelling lifestyle have a body flattened in the dorsal-ventral direction.

A means of protection against enemies is also protective coloration. Thanks to it, birds incubating eggs on the ground blend into the surrounding background. Their eggs, which have a pigmented shell, and the chicks hatching from them are also hardly noticeable (Fig. 80, 81). The protective nature of egg pigmentation is confirmed by the fact that in birds whose eggs are inaccessible to enemies, the protective coloration of the shell does not develop.

Rice. 75. Body Shape seahorse(left) makes it invisible against the background of algae

Rice. 76. Dim color and the elongated body of sea pipes allow them to hide in algae thickets

Protective coloring is widespread among a wide variety of animals. Butterfly caterpillars are often green, the color of the leaves, or dark, the color of the bark or earth. Bottom fish are usually colored to match the color of the sandy bottom (rays and flounder). At the same time, flounders can also change color depending on the color of the surrounding background (Fig. 82). The ability to change color by redistributing pigment in the integument of the body is also known in terrestrial animals, for example, in the chameleon (Fig. 83). Desert animals are usually yellow-brown or sandy-yellow in color. A monochromatic protective color is characteristic of both insects (locusts) and small lizards, as well as large ungulates (antelope, deer) and predators (lion).

Rice. 77. Indian plant bug

Rice. 78. Moth caterpillar in a resting pose

Rice. 79. Callima butterfly on a bush

If the background of the environment changes depending on the season of the year, many animals change color. For example, the inhabitants of middle and high latitudes (Arctic fox, hare, ermine, white partridge) after the autumn moult, the fur or plumage becomes white, which makes them invisible in the snow.

However, often in animals, body coloring does not camouflage them, but, on the contrary, attracts attention to them. This coloring is characteristic, for example, of poisonous or stinging insects: bees, wasps, blister beetles. The ladybug, which is very noticeable, is not pecked by birds because of the poisonous secretion it secretes. Bright warning coloring have inedible caterpillars, many Poisonous snakes. This coloring warns the predator in advance about the futility and even danger of an attack. Using the “trial and error” method, predators quickly learn to “bypass” potential prey with warning coloring.

Rice. 80. Tundra partridge at the nest

Rice. 81. Little plover laying eggs

The protective effect of protective coloring increases when combined with appropriate behavior. For example, the bittern nests in the reeds. In moments of danger, she cranes her neck, raises her head up and freezes. In this position it is difficult to detect even at close range. Many other animals without means active protection, in case of danger, take a resting pose (insects, fish, amphibians, birds) (see Fig. 78). Warning coloring in animals, on the contrary, is combined with demonstrative behavior that scares away predators (Fig. 84).

Rice. 82. Some bottom fish, such as flounder, have the ability to adapt their color to the color and nature of the seabed

Rice. 83. Chameleons change color to match their surroundings

In addition to coloring, other means of defense are observed in animals and plants. Plants often develop needles and spines that protect them from being eaten by herbivores (cacti, rose hips, hawthorn, sea buckthorn, etc.). The same role is played by toxic substances that burn hairs, for example in nettles. Crystals of calcium oxalate, which accumulate in the thorns of some plants, protect them from being eaten by caterpillars, snails and even rodents. Formations in the form of a hard chitinous cover in arthropods (beetles, crabs), shells in mollusks, horny scutes in crocodiles, shells in armadillos and turtles (Fig. 88) save them from many enemies. The quills of hedgehogs and porcupines serve the same purpose. All these devices could only appear as a result natural selection, i.e., preferential survival of better protected individuals.

Rice. 84. The intimidating pose of the Australian bearded lizard often scares enemies away from it.

Rice. 85. The Danaid butterfly (left) owes its inedibility to the fact that its caterpillars feed on leaves poisonous plant. Its tissues contain substances that cause severe poisoning in birds. Birds quickly learn not to touch the danaids, and at the same time their imitators - the edible nymphalids (right)

Rice. 86. Lesser cuckoo egg in the nest of a lesser warbler (left). On the right is a young little cuckoo

Rice. 87. Many birds are forced to feed cuckoo chicks. Above, a warbler feeds a deaf cuckoo chick. Below, a Siberian shrike feeds an Indian cuckoo chick. Foster parents carry out their duties, despite the fact that the chicks are larger than them

Rice. 88. The thick shell of the elephant turtle reliably protects it even from large predators

For the survival of organisms in the struggle for existence great importance It has adaptive behavior. In addition to hiding or demonstrative, scaring behavior when an enemy approaches, there are many other options for adaptive behavior that ensure the survival of adults or juveniles. Thus, many animals store food for the unfavorable season of the year. In deserts, for many species, the time of greatest activity is at night, when the heat subsides.

Review questions and assignments

1. Give examples of the adaptation of organisms to living conditions based on your own observations.

2. Why do some animals have bright, unmasking colors, while others, on the contrary, have protective colors?

3. What is the essence of mimicry? Compare mimicry and camouflage. What are their fundamental differences? How are they similar?

4. Does natural selection apply to animal behavior? Give examples.

5. What are the biological mechanisms for the emergence of adaptive (hiding and warning) coloration in animals?

6. Are there living organisms that do not have adaptive structural features? Justify your answer.

7. Outline your paragraph.

Work with computer

Refer to the electronic application. Study the lesson material and complete the assigned tasks.

Search on the Internet sites, the materials of which can serve as an additional source of information that reveals the content of the key concepts of the paragraph.

Get ready for the next lesson. Using additional sources of information (books, articles, Internet resources, etc.), make a report using the keywords and phrases in the next paragraph.

Protective coloring is the protective color and shape of animals that make their owners invisible in their habitats. Essentially, this is a type of passive defense against natural predators. The protective coloring is combined with a certain behavior of its owner. Usually the animal hides against a background that matches its color; in addition, it takes a certain pose. For example, many butterflies are located on the surface of a tree in such a way that the spots on their wings coincide with the spots on the bark, and the bittern, which nests in the reeds, stretches its body along the stems of plants in case of danger.

The role of passive protection in the life of animals

Protective coloration is especially important for the protection of organisms at an early stage of ontogenesis (larvae, eggs, chicks), as well as for adult individuals that lead a sedentary lifestyle or are at rest (for example, sleeping) for a long period. In addition, it plays an important role in conditions of rapid environmental change. Thus, many animals have the ability to change color when moving to a different background. For example, agama, flounder, chameleon. In temperate latitudes, many animals and birds are subject to seasonal color changes.

It is customary to distinguish three types of patronizing demonstration and mimicry. All of them arise as a result of the interaction of living beings in biogeocenosis against the background of certain environmental conditions. Protective coloration is a biocenotic adaptation developed as a result of the conjugate evolution of predators and prey. In addition to protective colors, there are also warning, attracting and dismembering colors.

Protective painting

As mentioned above, the protective coloration of animals always resembles the environment in which they live. For example, desert lizards or snakes have a yellow-gray color to match the vegetation and soil, and the inhabitants of snowy areas have white feathers and fur. This camouflage of animals allows them to remain invisible to enemies. It may be to some extent the same for inhabitants of completely different natural areas. For example, for mantises or grasshoppers, lizards or frogs living in grass middle zone, characteristically green in color. It also predominates in insects, reptiles, amphibians, and even some species of birds. tropical forests. Often, protective painting may include a pattern. For example, ribbon butterflies have a pattern of many stripes, spots and lines on their wings. When they sit on a tree, they completely merge with the pattern of its bark. Another important element of protective coloring is the counter-shade effect - this is when the illuminated side of the animal has a darker color than the one in the shadow. This principle is observed in fish that live in the upper layers of water.

Seasonal coloring

For example, consider the inhabitants of the tundra. Thus, partridges or arctic foxes in summer have a brown color to match the color of vegetation, stones and lichens, and in winter it turns white. Also the inhabitants middle zone, such as foxes, weasels, hares, and stoats, change their coat color twice a year. Seasonal colors also exist in insects. For example, a leaf fly with folded wings is surprisingly similar to a tree leaf. In summer it is green, and in autumn it turns brown-yellow.

Repellent coloring

Animals with bright colors are clearly visible; they often stay open and do not hide in case of danger. They don't need to be careful as they are often poisonous or inedible. Their warning coloring signals to everyone around them - don’t touch them. Most often it includes various combinations of the following colors: red, black, yellow, white. As an example, a number of insects can be cited: wasps, bees, hornets, ladybugs, etc.; and animals: dart frogs, salamanders. For example, poison dart frog mucus is so poisonous that it is used to treat arrowheads. One such arrow can kill a large leopard.

Let's look at what is meant by this term. Mimicry in animals is the similarity of defenseless species with well-protected species. A similar phenomenon in nature was first discovered in South American butterflies, so in flocks of giliconids (inedible for birds) white butterflies were noticed, which were very similar in color, size, shape and flight style to the first. This phenomenon is widespread among insects (glassy butterflies disguise themselves as hornets, sifid flies as wasps and bees), fish and snakes. Well, we've looked at what mimicry is, now let's look at the concept of form, dividing and changing coloring.

Protective form

There are many animals whose body shape is similar to various objects in the environment. Such properties save them from enemies, especially if the shape is combined with protective coloring. There are many types of caterpillars that can stretch out at an angle to a tree branch and freeze, in which case they become like a twig or twig. The resemblance to plants is widespread in the tropical species of devil, cicada adelungia, cyclopera, acridoxena, etc. The clown sea or rag-horse can camouflage themselves with the help of their body.

Dismembering coloring

The coloring of many representatives of the animal world is a combination of stripes and spots that do not correspond to the shape of the owner, but in tone and pattern they merge with the surrounding background. This coloration seems to dismember the animal, hence its name. An example would be a giraffe or a zebra. Their spotted and striped figures are almost invisible among the vegetation African savannah, especially at dusk, when they go hunting. A large camouflage effect due to dismembering coloring can be observed in some amphibians. For example, the body of a South African Bufo toads superciliaris is visually broken into two parts, as a result of which it completely loses its shape. Many also have distinct colors, which makes them invisible against the background of fallen leaves and variegated vegetation. In addition, this type of disguise is actively used by residents underwater world and insects.

Changing color

This property makes animals unnoticeable when the environment changes. There are many fish that can change their color when the background changes. For example, flounder, thalassoma, pipefish, pipits, blennies, etc. Lizards can also change their color, this is most clearly manifested in the tree chameleon. In addition, the octopus mollusk changes its color in case of danger; it can also skillfully camouflage itself under soils of any color, while repeating the most cunning ornament of the seabed. Various crustaceans, amphibians, insects and spiders masterfully manage their colors.

imitative resemblance some animals, mainly insects, with other species, providing protection from enemies. It is difficult to draw a clear boundary between it and a protective color or form. In its narrowest sense, mimicry is the imitation by a species, defenseless against some predators, of the appearance of a species avoided by these potential enemies due to inedibility or the presence of special means of defense. For example, the butterfly Limenitis archippus imitates the butterfly Danaus plexippus, which is not eaten by birds because it tastes unpleasant. However, mimicry in relation to insects can also be called several other types of protective adaptations. For example, a stick insect looks like an “inanimate” thin twig. The pattern on the wings of many butterflies makes them almost indistinguishable against the background of tree bark, mosses or lichens. Strictly speaking, this is a protective coloring, but there is a clear protective imitation of other objects, i.e., in a broad sense, mimicry.

Forms of mimicry. There are three main types of mimicry - apathetic, sematic and epigamic.
Apathetic mimicry is the resemblance of a species to an object in its environment. natural environment- animal, vegetable or mineral origin. Due to the diversity of such objects, this type of mimicry falls into many smaller categories. Sematic (preventive) mimicry is the imitation in shape and color of a species avoided by predators due to the presence of special means of defense or an unpleasant taste. It is found in larvae, nymphs, adults and possibly even pupae. Epigamic mimicry, or coloration, can be observed in sexually dimorphic species. An inedible animal is imitated by either males or females. At the same time, females sometimes imitate several differently colored species found either in a given area in different seasons, or in different parts range of the simulator species. Darwin considered this type of mimicry to be the result of sexual selection, in which the defenseless form becomes more and more similar to the protected one as less perfect imitators are destroyed by natural enemies. Those who manage to more accurately copy someone else's appearance survive due to this similarity and give birth to offspring. Ratio of numbers of copied and copying species. An inedible form copied by another species must obviously be so abundant that natural enemies very quickly (after the first one or two attempts to feast on individuals of the corresponding appearance) learn to avoid it. If there are more imitators than originals, such training will naturally be delayed, and both the original and the copy will have to suffer from this. As a rule, the number of copied individuals is many times higher than that of copying individuals, although there may be rare exceptions, for example, when development conditions for the former are unfavorable, while for the latter they are close to ideal.
Examples of mimicry. Daytime butterflies. IN North America most shining example mimicry - imitation of the butterfly Limenitis archippus (its English name- viceroy, viceroy) to another butterfly - Danaus plexippus (this large beautiful butterfly is called the monarch). They are very similar in color, although the imitation is somewhat smaller than the original and has an “extra” black arc on the hind wings. This mimicry is limited to adults (adults), and the caterpillars of the two species are completely different. The “original” has caterpillars with a bright black-yellow-green pattern, which is boldly displayed to birds and other predators. The larvae of the imitator species, on the contrary, are inconspicuous, speckled, and look like bird droppings. Thus, the adult stage here serves as an example of mimicry in the narrow sense of the word, and the caterpillar shows protective coloration.

Mimicry is widespread in many regions South-East Asia and Australia. Among the butterflies living here, Danaids and many species of swallowtails have an unpleasant taste for birds and other predators. Their appearance is copied as much as possible edible species swallowtails and butterflies of other families. Moreover, sometimes sailboats and Danaids, protected from enemies, copy each other’s appearance no less skillfully than their defenseless imitators do. A similar situation is observed in the tropics of America and Africa. One of the classic examples of mimicry is the African butterfly Hypolimmas misippus, which, depending on the geographical area, imitates different species of Danaids and, thus, itself is represented by externally different forms. Night butterflies. Most of The literature on mimicry describes it using the example of representatives of the order Lepidoptera, but excellent examples of imitation are also known among other groups of insects and other animals. The caterpillars of one of the South American species of hawkmoths look extremely unremarkable in a calm state, however, if they are disturbed, they rear up and arch their body, inflating its front end. The result is a complete illusion of a snake's head. For greater authenticity, the caterpillars slowly sway from side to side. Spiders. As you know, spiders - worst enemies insects However, the spider Synemosina antidae is so similar to an ant that only by looking closely can one recognize the mimicry. On the other hand, some ants and other insects at certain stages of their development resemble spiders in appearance and habits. Bees and wasps. These insects serve as favorite role models. Their appearance and behavior are copied by many types of flies. Some of the imitators not only use wasp coloring, but when caught, they pretend that they are going to sting and buzz almost the same way as the “originals”. Many species of moths from several families also resemble bees and wasps - in flight or at rest. Beetles. Thousands of insect species imitate their appearance animal excrement. Many beetles resort to this form of mimicry, which complement their resemblance to animal feces by pretending to be dead when they sense danger. Other beetles resemble plant seeds in their dormant state. Stick insects. The most amazing imitators include representatives of the order of stick insects, or ghost insects. At rest, these insects are almost indistinguishable from thin twigs. At the first appearance of danger, they freeze, but when the fear passes, they begin to move slowly, and if after a short period of time they are disturbed again, they fall from the plant to the ground. The famous representatives of the leaf family, found in the Pacific and South Asian regions, are so similar to the leaves of some plants that they can only be noticed when they move. In this regard, the only ones that can compete with them are the leaf butterflies, which on a branch are indistinguishable from a dry leaf of a plant. Some species of daytime butterflies have chosen a different method of camouflage: their wings are transparent, so these insects are almost invisible in flight.
Other forms of mimicry. Mimicry is one of the least studied areas of entomology. Unfortunately, traditionally the main attention here was paid to cases of imago imitation, and only in Lately Interest in the imitative capabilities of immature stages of insects began to increase. Perhaps one of the most effective types of mimicry is the complete loss by an animal of external resemblance to an animate object and, in general, to anything specific (a kind of “anti-mimicry”). There are known bugs whose legs, chest or head shape is so atypical for living creatures that the insect as a whole looks completely “non-bug-like”. In some cockroaches, grasshoppers, bedbugs, spiders and many other species, the “dismembering” coloring of the body, consisting of irregular stripes and spots, seems to break its contours, allowing the animal to blend more completely with the background. Legs, antennae and other body parts sometimes look so “atypical” that this alone scares off potential predators. Harmless daytime insects often resemble stinging or inedible species thanks to the movements of its two-colored legs.

• - similarity of individual plant organs with other organs or elements of the environment. M. usually serves to attract beneficial and repel harmful insects...

  Anatomy and morphology of plants

• - The external resemblance of one animal to another animal, developed through the process of natural selection and usually providing certain advantages to the animal simulator...

  Great psychological encyclopedia

• - the imitative resemblance of some animals, mainly insects, to other species, providing protection from enemies. It is difficult to draw a clear boundary between it and a protective color or form...

  Collier's Encyclopedia

• - mimicry - The external resemblance of an unprotected organism of one species to a protected organism of another species; M. is more common in animals - mimesia or mimetism...

  Molecular biology and genetics. Dictionary

• - women have one of the types of patronage. colors and shapes, in which the object resembles objects in the environment. Contributes to the preservation of life in the struggle for existence...

  Natural science. encyclopedic Dictionary

• - MIMICRY see Art. Protective coloring and shape of animals...

  Ecological dictionary

• - an expression introduced into zoology initially to designate certain special cases of extreme external similarity between various types animals belonging to various genera and even families and...

  Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Euphron

• - mimesia, in animals - one of the types of protective coloring and shape, in which there is an animal’s resemblance to environmental objects, plants, and also inedible for predators or...

  Great Soviet Encyclopedia

• - animals have one of the types of protective coloring and shape, in which the animal resembles environmental objects, plants, inedible or predatory animals...

  Large encyclopedic dictionary

• - R., D., Pr....

  Spelling dictionary of the Russian language

• - MIMICRY, -and, female. . In some animals and plants: similarity in color and shape with the environment, which helps them in the struggle for existence...

  Ozhegov's Explanatory Dictionary

• - MIMICRY, mimicry, many. no, female . Involuntary, imitative reproduction by some animals, for the purpose of self-defense, of the shapes and colors of other animals or the environment. || transfer...

  Ushakov's Explanatory Dictionary

• - mimicry I f. A protective adaptation of certain species of animals and plants, expressed in their similarity to other animals and plants, as well as to objects in the environment...

  Explanatory Dictionary by Efremova

• - mimicry "...

  Russian orthographic dictionary

• - MIMETISM or. The imitative coloring and resemblance of animals to inanimate objects or to their habitat, protecting them from the eyes of enemies...

  Dictionary foreign words Russian language

• - Á noun see _Appendix II Information about the origin of the word: The word is borrowed by our language from English, but it does not retain the stress on the second syllable, as in this language, cf. mimicry...

  Dictionary of Russian accents

"MIMICRY" in books

Mimicry and anthropomorphism

From the book Chukovsky author Lukyanova Irina

Mimicry and anthropomorphism “The Beard” was already finished, the book “Nekrasov: Articles and Materials” was prepared for publication in Kubuch (the publishing house of the Commission for the Improvement of the Living Life of Scientists), children’s fairy tales were awaiting publication and reprinting, but nothing happened! Unexpectedly in Leningrad

3.Mimicry

From the book Historical Tales author Nalbandyan Karen Eduardovich

3. Mimicry Ariadna Efron writes from the Turukhansk exile: “I console myself with the fact that I take on the color of the surrounding

Chapter 4 Mimicry

From the book Thus Spoke Goebbels author Joseph Goebbels

Chapter 4 Mimicry Mimicry. “Das Reich”, July 20, 1941 Article published in the Nazi newspaper “Das Reich” on July 20, 1941, shortly after the German attack on the USSR. One of Goebbels's most vicious and successful attacks on the Jews. Encyclopedic reference. MIMICRY (English mimicry, from Greek mimikos

Mimicry (Mimétisme)

From the book Philosophical Dictionary author Comte-Sponville Andre

Mimicry (Mim?tisme) The ability to become different, that is, similar to something that one is not, imitating it against one’s own will. Mimicry has more to do with physiology and impregnation than with conscious learning. Chameleon merging with its surroundings

Mimicry and dogmatism

From the book The Powerlessness of Power. Putin's Russia author Khasbulatov Ruslan Imranovich

Mimicry and dogmatism Another noticeable trend is that officials at all levels, including provincial administrators, party leaders, businessmen, etc., are hastily acquiring various kinds of diplomas from the most prestigious higher education institutions. educational institutions countries,

Mimicry

From the book Encyclopedic Dictionary (M) author Brockhaus F.A.

Mimicry

From the book Big Soviet Encyclopedia(MI) of the author TSB

Mimicry

From the book I Explore the World. Insects author Lyakhov Peter

Mimicry Mimicry is the imitative resemblance of an unprotected organism to a protected or inedible one. She is known among large quantity groups of animals. And it is best studied using the examples of butterflies: they are relatively easy to collect in large series and examine the details

Mimicry

From the book The Smartest, or New Fighters of the Invisible Front author Maslennikov Roman Mikhailovich

Mimicry Frankie’s voice continued to burn with the verb: “Many employees look like their bosses... Mimicry, gentlemen. Everyone is still amazed at my portrait resemblance to Leonid Ilyich Brezhnev, the most staunch party member. I first saw him in 1956. Above average height

Mimicry of needs

From the book Entertaining physics of relationships author Gagin Timur Vladimirovich

Mimicry of needs Often the manifestations of some needs mimic the manifestations of others. There are even typical cases of such mimicry. Let's look at them. Acceptance and self-esteem They are, indeed, often confused. And the difference is actually fundamental: when there is a need for acceptance, there is no

Exercise 30 Mimicry

From the book 50 exercises for developing manipulation skills by Carre Christophe

Exercise 30 Mimicry Imagine yourself in the following situation and answer the question posed. You go shopping with your spouse. You're hoping to convince him to buy a decent shirt so he can finally take off that T-shirt he's been carrying around since you've been with him

Murderous mimicry

From the book Consumerism [The Disease That Threatens the World] by Vann David

Killer Mimicry The surprises keep coming. They include other dead zones located in the Great Lakes, the Arctic, and sometimes in the human uterus. Like testimony in the investigation of a terrible crime, the incoming data reports

POLITBURO AND MIMICRY

From the book Man with a Ruble author Mikhail Khodorkovsky

POLITIBURO AND MIMICRY MENATEP and similar structures are accused of leading to social stratification, to social inequality. What is overlooked is that, in fact, social inequality has flourished for seventy years and has been generously fed and stimulated

Mimicry of Falsity

From the book Literary Newspaper 6277 (No. 22 2010) author Literary Newspaper

Mimicry of falsehood Television Mimicry of falsehood TV MUSIC It is not so easy to please someone who walks through life singing. Born in the USSR with a tuning fork in his head, he is demanding and starts with half a turn. There are many of them, sensitive to falsehood - at the peak of “stagnation” about 120,000 pianos were produced in

Soul Mimicry

From the book Literary Newspaper 6389 (No. 42 2012) author Literary Newspaper

Mimicry of the soul Mimicry of the soul Mail "LG" Careerism has always existed, and not only with a minus sign. Didn’t young Dostoevsky think about a literary career when he began his immortal novels? Or Kutuzov, who surrendered Moscow, made a risky maneuver, did not

Translated it means masking, imitation.

There are cases when animals acquire an extraordinary resemblance not only in color, but also in shape to individual items, among whom they live, which is called imitation. There are especially many such examples between insects.

Caterpillars of moth butterflies (Geometridae) live on the branches of plants with which they are similar in color, and have the habit of attaching themselves with their hind legs, stretching out their bodies and holding them motionless in the air. In this respect, they resemble small dry twigs of plants to such an extent that the most keen and experienced eye can hardly see them. Other caterpillars resemble bird excrement, fallen birch catkins, etc.

Tropical stick insect (Phyllocrania paradoxa)

Tropical stick insects from the family Phasmidae exhibit amazing adaptations: they imitate the color and shape of the body - some are dry sticks several inches long, others are leaves. Butterflies from the genus Kallima from Southeast Asia, brightly colored on the upper side of the wings, when they sit on a branch and fold their wings, take on the appearance of a withered leaf: with short outgrowths of the hind wings, the butterfly rests on the branch, and they resemble a petiole; the pattern and color of the back side of the folded wings are so reminiscent of the color and venation of a dried leaf that at a very close distance it is extremely difficult to distinguish the butterfly from the leaves.

There are three main types of mimicry - apathetic, sematic and epigamic.

Apathetic mimicry is the resemblance of a species to an object in the natural environment - animal, plant or mineral origin. Due to the diversity of such objects, this type of mimicry falls into many smaller categories.

Sematic (preventive) mimicry is the imitation in shape and color of a species avoided by predators due to the presence of special means of defense or an unpleasant taste. It is found in larvae, nymphs, adults and possibly even pupae.

Epigamic mimicry, or coloration, can be observed in sexually dimorphic species. An inedible animal is imitated by either males or females. In this case, females sometimes imitate several differently colored species that are found either in a given area in different seasons, or in different parts of the range of the imitating species. Darwin considered this type of mimicry to be the result of sexual selection, in which the defenseless form becomes more and more similar to the protected one as less perfect imitators are destroyed by natural enemies. Those who manage to more accurately copy someone else's appearance survive due to this similarity and give birth to offspring.

Corymica spatiosa(female)

Cleora injectaria

Cleora replusaria

Coremecis nigrovittata

Antitrygodes vicina

Antitrygodes divisaria

Mimicry, in the narrowest sense of the word, is the imitation by a species, defenseless against some predators, of the appearance of another species, which is avoided by these predators due to inedibility or the presence of special means of defense.

In a broader sense, mimicry is the imitative resemblance of some animals, mainly insects, to other types of living organisms or inedible objects of the external environment, providing protection from enemies.

There are three main types of mimicry - apathetic, sematic and epigamic.

At the same time, it is difficult to draw a clear line between mimicry and protective coloring or shape. Mimicry is one of the least studied areas of entomology. For example, the butterfly Limenitis archippus imitates the butterfly Danaus plexippus, which is not eaten by birds because it tastes unpleasant. However, mimicry, as applied to insects, can also be called several other types of protective adaptations. For example, a stick insect looks like an “inanimate” thin twig. The pattern on the wings of many butterflies makes them almost indistinguishable against the background of tree bark, mosses or lichens. On the one hand, strictly speaking, this is a protective coloring, but there is also a clear protective imitation of other objects, i.e.

This is, in a broad sense, mimicry.

The most amazing imitators include representatives of the order of stick insects, or ghost insects. At rest, these insects are almost indistinguishable from thin twigs. At the first appearance of danger, they freeze, but when the fear passes, they begin to move slowly, and if after a short period of time they are disturbed again, they fall from the plant to the ground. The famous representatives of the leaf family, found in the Pacific and South Asian regions, are so similar to the leaves of some plants that they can only be noticed when they move. In this regard, the only ones that can compete with them are the leaf butterflies, which on a branch are indistinguishable from a dry leaf of a plant. Some species of daytime butterflies have chosen a different method of camouflage: their wings are transparent, so these insects are almost invisible in flight.

Perhaps one of the most effective types of mimicry is the complete loss of an animal’s external resemblance to an animate object or anything specific in general (a kind of “anti-mimicry”). There are known bugs whose legs, chest or head shape is so atypical for living creatures that the insect as a whole looks completely “non-bug-like”. In some cockroaches, grasshoppers, bedbugs, spiders and many other species, the “dismembering” coloring of the body, consisting of irregular stripes and spots, seems to break its contours, allowing the animal to blend more completely with the background. Legs, antennae and other body parts sometimes look so “atypical” that this alone scares off potential predators.

Sematic (warning) mimicry- this is an imitation in shape and color of a species avoided by predators due to the presence of special means of defense or an unpleasant taste. It is found in larvae, nymphs, adults and possibly even pupae.

Harmless diurnal insects often achieve external resemblance to stinging or inedible species thanks to the movements of their bicolored legs. Bees and wasps serve as favorite role models. Their appearance and behavior are copied by many types of flies. Some of the imitators not only use the wasp coloration, but when caught, they pretend that they are going to sting and buzz almost the same way as the “originals”. Many species of moths from several families also resemble bees and wasps - in flight or at rest.

Danaid butterflies and many species of swallowtails, found in many regions of Southeast Asia and Australia, have an unpleasant taste for birds and other predators. Their appearance is, as far as possible, copied by completely edible species of swallowtails and butterflies of other families. Moreover, sometimes sailboats and Danaids, protected from enemies, copy each other’s appearance no less skillfully than their defenseless imitators do. A similar situation is observed in the tropics of America and Africa. One of the classic examples of mimicry is the African butterfly Hypolimmas misippus, which, depending on the geographical area, imitates different species of Danaids and, thus, itself is represented by externally different forms.

The caterpillars of one of the South American species of hawkmoths look extremely unremarkable in a calm state, however, if they are disturbed, they rear up and arch their body, inflating its front end. The result is a complete illusion of a snake's head. For greater authenticity, the caterpillars slowly sway from side to side.

In North America, the most striking example of mimicry is the imitation of the butterfly Limenitis archippus (its English name is viceroy, viceroy) of another butterfly, Danaus plexippus (this large, beautiful butterfly is called the monarch). They are very similar in color, although the imitation is somewhat smaller than the original and has an “extra” black arc on the hind wings. This mimicry is limited to adults (adults), and the caterpillars of the two species are completely different. The “original” has caterpillars with a bright black-yellow-green pattern, which is boldly displayed to birds and other predators. The larvae of the imitator species, on the contrary, are inconspicuous, speckled, and look like bird droppings. Thus, the adult stage here serves as an example of mimicry in the narrow sense of the word, and the caterpillar shows protective coloration.

Spiders are the worst enemies of insects. Some ants and other insects at certain stages of their development resemble spiders in appearance and habits. However, the spider Synemosina antidae is so similar to an ant that only by looking closely can one recognize the mimicry.

An important indicator that influences the effectiveness of mimicry is the ratio of the numbers of the copied and copying species. An inedible form copied by another species must obviously be so abundant that natural enemies very quickly (after the first one or two attempts to feast on individuals of the corresponding appearance) learn to avoid it. If there are more imitators than originals, such training will naturally be delayed, and both the original and the copy will have to suffer from this. As a rule, the number of copied individuals is many times higher than that of copying individuals, although there may be rare exceptions, for example, when development conditions for the former are unfavorable, while for the latter they are close to ideal.

Epigamic mimicry, or coloration, can be observed in sexually dimorphic species. An inedible animal is imitated by either males or females. In this case, females sometimes imitate several differently colored species that are found either in a given area in different seasons, or in different parts of the range of the imitating species. Darwin considered this type of mimicry to be the result of sexual selection, in which the defenseless form becomes more and more similar to the protected one as less perfect imitators are destroyed by natural enemies. Those who manage to more accurately copy someone else's appearance survive due to this similarity and give birth to offspring.