Coursework in the discipline: World culture and art

Completed by 1st year student Golysheva A.V.

Krasnoyarsk Institute of Economics of the St. Petersburg Academy of Management and Economics (NOU VPO)

Krasnoyarsk, 2007

Introduction.

About five thousand years ago, in the south of the Balkan Peninsula and its surrounding islands in the eastern Mediterranean, a culture was born that was destined to play the greatest role in the history of mankind - the culture of the ancient Greeks, or Hellenes. Greece never aspired to dominance in the world, its inhabitants took part in only a few historical battles, and few of the Greek generals managed to gain great fame. For more than the last two millennia, this people has been under the rule of foreign conquerors, and only a century and a half ago Greece regained its independence and appeared on the map as an independent state.

It would seem that Greece in the past was no different from its neighbors - neither a special political role, nor any exceptional natural conditions. However, it was here that two and a half millennia ago culture reached such a flowering that for many centuries seemed unattainable. Athenian democracy, founded in those distant times, still serves as a model for anyone who thinks. 1 The Lion's Gate in Mycenae is about the equality and freedom of every citizen.

The Greeks attached no less importance to human health. It is no coincidence that the first healer truly worthy of the title of a doctor was the Greek Hippocrates. And the examples of artistic creativity that have come down to us - sculpture, architecture, murals and ceramics, as well as the myths and legends of Ancient Greece - belong to the highest, truly priceless creations of mankind.

In my term paper, I want to talk about the customs and customs of the ancient Greeks, about the great Greek poets and scientists who still amaze us, about the amazing architecture and sculpture, and much more. (See Fig. 1) Although classical Greece has long been exists, the influence of its legacy on world culture will continue for many, many years to come.

1. CULTURE OF HELLAS IN THE X-XII CENTURIES. BC.

For centuries, the classical culture of ancient Greece has occupied the imagination of people and still fascinates. It was the successor of ancient Eastern cultures, acquiring new features over time and became the cradle of European culture. The Achaeans arrived in Greece in the 21st century. BC. from the north and northwest and created their kingdoms in Athens, Mycenae, Tiryns, Pylos and Thebes, and around the 16th century. BC. conquered Crete (see fig. 2).

The original and multifaceted early Greek culture was formed in 3000-1200. BC e. Various factors accelerated its movement. For example, the completed ethnogenesis of the Greek people strengthened the internal ties of the entire Greek-speaking world, despite frequent local clashes.

The creative activity of the Greeks of the Bronze Age was based on the development of a large stock of experimental knowledge. First of all, it should be noted the level and volume of technological knowledge that allowed the population of Hellas to widely develop specialized handicraft production. Metallurgy included not only high-temperature (up to 1083°C) smelting of copper. Casters also worked with tin, lead, silver and gold, rare native iron was used for jewelry. The creation of alloys was not limited to bronze, already in the 17th-16th centuries. BC e. The Greeks made electr and knew well the technique of gilding bronze items. Bronze was used to cast tools, weapons and household items. All these products were distinguished by the rationality of the form and the quality of workmanship.

Pottery also testifies to the fluency in complex thermal processes carried out in furnaces of various designs. The use of the potter's wheel, known since the 13th century. BC e., contributed to the creation of other mechanisms set in motion by the power of a person or draft animals. So, wheeled transport already at the beginning of the II millennium BC. e. consisted of war chariots and ordinary wagons. The principle of rotation, which has long been used in spinning, was used in machines for the manufacture of ropes. When processing wood, turning and drilling devices were used. Achievements of engineering Achaeans clearly illustrate created in the XVI-XII centuries. BC e. water pipes and closed water collectors. Particularly indicative is the knowledge of hydraulics and the accuracy of the calculations made during the construction of secret water supply systems in the fortresses of Mycenae, Tiryns and Athens around the 1250s.

The accumulation of technological knowledge and the progress of the skill of a wide range of ordinary workers, both in agriculture and in specialized and home crafts, were the basis of the intensive economic development of the country.

1.1. ARCHITECTURE

Architecture was distinguished by high achievements. Architectural monuments vividly reflect the existence of property inequality and testify to the emergence of early class monarchies. Already monumental Cretan palaces of the XIX-XVI centuries. BC e. astounding in scale. However, it is characteristic that the general plan of the Cretan palaces was only a monumental repetition of the plan of the estate of a wealthy farmer.

Another level of architectural thought is the later palaces of the mainland kings. They are based on the central core - megaron, which also repeats the traditional plan of an ordinary dwelling. It consisted of a front room (prodomos), a main hall (domos) with a front hearth, and a back room. Many acropolises were protected by powerful stone walls fig. 3 Entrance to the palace of King Minos of Crete

Cyclopean masonry with an average thickness of 5-8 m. No less impressive is the skill of architects who created monumental beehive-shaped royal tombs, tholos. Columns and semi-columns, stone and marble carvings, wall paintings with the most complex compositions were widely used (see Fig. 3).

1.2. THE ART OF VASE PAINTING

During the X-XII centuries. BC e. the art of vase painting developed rapidly. Already at the beginning of the II millennium BC. the traditional geometric ornament of the Cretans was complemented by a spiral motif, brilliantly developed by the Cycladic masters in the previous century (see Fig. 4). Later, in the XIX-XV centuries. BC, in all regions of the country, vase painters also turned to naturalistic motifs, reproducing plants, animals and marine fauna. It should be noted that in some areas, bright local artistic traditions have developed that clearly characterize

rice. 4 Vase with warriors from Mycenae. vase painting of each center.

The breadth of society's artistic demands was manifested in the close attention of art to man and his activities. A brilliant example is the multicolored murals in the houses of Mount Jean of Akrotia, executed by several masters. If in the art of the III millennium BC. e. while few monuments are known that speak of the craving of artists for naturalness, then in the XX-XII centuries. BC e. the creations of many artists are distinguished by their ability to harmoniously combine the feeling of wildlife with the requirements of a decorative style.

1.3. LITERATURE

The literature of the early Greeks, like other peoples, went back to the traditions of ancient folklore, which included fairy tales, fables, myths and songs. With the change in social conditions, the rapid development of folk epic poetry began, glorifying the deeds of the ancestors and heroes of each tribe. By the middle of the II millennium BC. e. the epic tradition of the Greeks became more complex, professional poets-storytellers, aeds, appeared in society. In their work already in the XVII-XII centuries. BC e. a prominent place was occupied by legends about the most important historical events contemporary to them.

In the XIV-XIII centuries. BC e. epic literature has developed into a special kind of art with its own special rules of speech and musical performance, poetic meter-hexameter, an extensive supply of constant characteristic epithets, comparisons and descriptive formulas. The level of poetic creativity of the early Greeks is evidenced by the epic poems "Iliad" and "Odyssey" - outstanding monuments of world literature. Both poems belong to the circle of historical narratives about the campaign of the Achaean troops after 1240. BC. to the Trojan kingdom.

1.4. WRITING

Writing in the Greek culture of the XXII-XII centuries. BC e. played a limited role. Like many peoples of the world, the inhabitants of Hellas, first of all, began to make pictorial records, known already in the second half of the 3rd millennium BC. e. Each sign of this pictographic letter denoted a whole concept. The Cretans created some signs, though not many, under the influence of Egyptian hierographic writing, which arose as early as the 4th millennium BC. e. Gradually, the forms of signs were simplified, and some began to designate only syllables.

Such a syllabic (linear) letter, which had already developed by 1700 BC. e., is called letter A, which still remains unsolved.

After 1500 BC. e. in Hellas, a more convenient form of writing was developed - the syllabic letter B. It included about half of the signs of the syllabic letter A, several dozen new signs, as well as some signs of the most ancient pictorial writing. The counting system, as before, was based on decimal notation. Syllabary entries were still made from left to right, but the writing rules became more strict: words separated by a special sign or space were written along horizontal lines, separate texts were provided with headings and subheadings. Texts were drawn on clay tablets, scratched on stone, written with a brush or paint or ink on vessels. Achaean writing was accessible only to educated specialists. He was known by ministers in the royal palaces and some layer of wealthy citizens.

1.5. RELIGION

Initially, the Greek religion, like any other primitive religion, reflects only the weakness of man in the face of those “forces” that in nature, later in society and in his own mind, interfere, as it seems to him, with his actions and pose a threat to his existence, thus more terrible, that he does not understand where it comes from. Primitive man is not interested in nature to the extent that it invades his life and determines its conditions.

The diverse forces of nature were personified in the form of special deities, with whom many sacred legends and myths were associated. During the XXX-XII centuries. BC e. The religious ideas of the Greek population have undergone many changes. Initially, deities who personified the forces of nature enjoyed exceptional reverence. They especially honored the Great Goddess (later Demeter, which means “Mother of Bread”), who was in charge of the fertility of the plant and animal world. She was accompanied by a male deity, followed by minor gods. Cult ceremonies included sacrifices and gifts, solemn processions and ritual dances. The deities had certain attributes, the images of which are very frequent, and they served as symbols of these heavenly powers.

The formation of early class states introduced new features into spiritual life, including sacred ideas. The community of Hellenic gods (the pantheon) received a more defined organizational structure. The worldview of the people now depicted relations between the gods, very similar to those that the Achaeans saw in the royal capitals. Therefore, on Olympus, where the main deities lived, Zeus was supreme, the father of gods and people, who ruled over the whole world (see Fig. 5). Other members of the early Hellenic pantheon subordinate to him had special rice. 5 Bronze statuette of Zeus

public functions. The Achaean epic, which preserved information about the veneration of many early Hellenic deities, also conveys a somewhat critical view of the celestials, inherent only in Greek thinking: the gods are in many ways similar to people, they have not only good qualities, but also shortcomings and weaknesses.

2. CULTURE OF THE "DARK AGES" (XI-IX CENTURIES B.C.)

The palace civilization of the Cretan-Mycenaean era left the historical scene under mysterious, still not fully clarified circumstances, around the end of the 12th century. BC e. The era of ancient civilization begins only after three and a half and even four centuries.

Thus, there is a rather significant time “gap”, and the question inevitably arises: what place does this chronological segment (in literature it is sometimes referred to as “dark ages”) occupy in the general process of the historical development of Greek society? Was it a kind of bridge that connected two very dissimilar historical eras and civilizations, or, on the contrary, did it divide them with the deepest abyss?

Archaeological research in recent years has made it possible to find out the true extent of the terrible catastrophe experienced by the Mycenaean civilization at the turn of the 13th-12th centuries. BC e., and also trace the main stages of its decline in the subsequent period. The logical conclusion of this process was a deep depression that engulfed the main areas of mainland and insular Greece during the so-called Sub-Mycenaean period (1125-1025 BC). Its main distinguishing feature is the depressing poverty of material culture, behind which was hidden a sharp decline in the living standards of the bulk of the Greek population and an equally sharp decline in the country's productive forces. The products of the Sub-Mycenaean potters that have come down to us make the most bleak impression. They are very rough in form, carelessly molded, lacking even elementary grace. Their paintings are extremely primitive and inexpressive. As a rule, they repeat the spiral motif - one of the few decorative elements inherited from Mycenaean art.

The total number of metal products that have come down from this period is extremely small. Large items, such as weapons, are extremely rare. Small crafts like brooches or rings predominate. Apparently, the population of Greece suffered from a chronic lack of metal, especially bronze, which in the XII - the first half of the XI century. BC e. still remained the mainstay of the entire Greek industry. The explanation for this deficit should, apparently, be sought in the state of isolation from the outside world in which Balkan Greece found itself even before the beginning of the Sub-Mycenaean period. Cut off from external sources of raw materials and not having sufficient internal resources of the metal, the Greek communities were forced to introduce a regime of strict economy.

True, almost at the same time, the first iron products appeared in Greece. Scattered finds of bronze knives with iron inserts date back to the very beginning of the period. It can be assumed that by the second half of the XI century. BC e. the technique of iron processing to some extent was already mastered by the Greeks themselves. However, the centers of the iron industry were still extremely few and could hardly provide the entire population of the country with a sufficient amount of metal. The decisive step in this direction was taken only in the X century.

Another distinctive feature of the Sub-Mycenaean period was a decisive break with the traditions of the Mycenaean era. The most common method of burial in the Mycenaean time in chamber tombs was supplanted by individual burials in box graves (cysts) or in simple pits. Toward the end of the period, in many places, for example, in Attica, Boeotia, Crete, another new custom appears - cremation and usually accompanying burial in urns. This, again, should be seen as a departure from traditional Mycenaean customs.

A similar break with Mycenaean traditions is observed in the sphere of worship. Even in the largest Greek sanctuaries (which existed both in the Mycenaean era and in later times (starting approximately from the 9th-8th centuries BC)), there are no traces of cult activity whatsoever: the remains of buildings, votive figurines, even ceramics. Such a situation, indicating the fading of religious life, archaeologists find, in particular, in Delphi, on Delos, in the sanctuary of Hera on Samos and in some other places. The only exception to the general rule is Crete, where the worship of the gods in the traditional forms of Minoan ritual seems to have been uninterrupted throughout the period.

Perhaps no other period in the history of Greece so closely resembles the famous Thucydian description of the primitive life of the Hellenic tribes with their continuous movement from place to place, chronological poverty and uncertainty about the future.

3. CULTURE OF THE ARCHAIC PERIOD (VIII-VI CENTURIES B.C.)

3.1. WRITING

One of the most important factors of Greek culture VIII-VI centuries. BC e. considered to be a new writing system. The alphabet, partly borrowed from the Phoenicians, was more convenient than the ancient syllabary of the Mycenaean era: it consisted of only 24 characters, each of which had a firmly established phonetic meaning. If in the Mycenaean society, as in other similar societies of the Bronze Age, the art of writing was available only to a few initiates who were part of a closed caste of professional scribes, now it is becoming the common property of all citizens of the policy, since each of them could master the skills of writing and reading . All this led to the rapid growth of literacy among the population of the Greek policies, as evidenced by the numerous inscriptions on stone, metal, and ceramics, the number of which is increasing as we approach the end of the archaic period.

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3.2. POETRY

Greek poetry of the post-Homeric time (7th-6th centuries BC) is distinguished by its extraordinary thematic richness and variety of forms and genres. Of the later forms of the epic, two of its main variants are known: the heroic epic, represented by the so-called Cycle poems, and the didactic epic, represented by two poems by Hesiod: Works and Days and Theogony.

Lyric poetry is becoming widespread and soon becomes the leading literary trend of the era, in turn, subdivided into several main genres: elegy, iambic, monodic, i.e. intended for solo performance, and choral lyrics, or melik. The most important distinguishing feature of the Greek poetry of the archaic period in all its main types and genres should be recognized as its pronounced humanistic coloring.

During the 7th and first half of the 6th centuries. BC e. a number of poems arose, compiled in the style of the Homeric epic and designed to merge with the Iliad and the Odyssey and, together with them, form a single coherent chronicle of mythological tradition, the so-called epic "kikl" (cycle, circle).

Greek poetry of the post-Homerian period is characterized by a sharp transfer of the center of gravity of the poetic narrative to the personality of the poet himself. This trend is already clearly felt in the work of Hesiod, especially in his poem Works and Days.

In the most frank, one might say, deliberately emphasized form, the individualistic trends of the era were embodied in the work of such a remarkable lyric poet as Archilochus.

While some Greek poets sought to comprehend in their poems the complex inner world of man and find the best option for his relationship with the civil collective of the policy, others no less persistently tried to penetrate into the structure of the universe surrounding man and solve the riddle of its origin. One of these poets-thinkers was Hesiod, known to us, who in his poem "Theogony", or "The Origin of the Gods", tried to present the existing world order in its, so to speak, historical development from the gloomy and faceless primordial Chaos to the bright and harmonious world headed by Zeus the Olympian gods.

3.3. RELIGION AND PHILOSOPHY

In the era of the Great Colonization, the traditional Greek religion did not meet the spiritual needs of its contemporaries. Representatives of two closely related religious and philosophical teachings - the Orphics and the Pythagoreans - tried to solve this. Both those and others evaluated the earthly life of a person as a continuous chain of suffering sent down to people by the gods for their sins. At the same time, both the Orphics and the Pythagoreans believed in the immortality of the soul. The idea that the body is just a temporary "dungeon" or even "grave" of the immortal soul, which had a huge impact on many later adherents of philosophical idealism and mysticism, from Plato to the founders of the Christian faith, first arose precisely in the bosom of the Orphic- Pythagorean doctrine. Unlike the Orphics, who were closer to the broad masses of the people and based their teachings only on a somewhat rethought and updated myth about the dying and resurrecting deity of wildlife Dionysus Zagreus, the Pythagoreans were a closed aristocratic sect hostile to democracy. Their mystical teachings were of a much more refined nature, laying claim to sublime intellectuality. It is no coincidence that Pythagoras himself and his closest students and followers were passionate about mathematical calculations, while paying generous tribute to the mystical interpretation of numbers and their combinations.

Both the Orphics and the Pythagoreans tried to correct and purify the traditional beliefs of the Greeks, replacing them with a more refined, spiritually filled form of religion. A completely different view of the world, in many ways already approaching spontaneous materialism, at the same time (6th century BC) was developed and defended by representatives of the so-called Ionian natural philosophy: Thales, Anaximander and Anaximenes. All three were natives of Miletus, the largest and most economically developed of the Greek cities of Asia Minor.

For the first time in the history of mankind, the Milesian thinkers tried to present the entire universe around them as a harmoniously arranged, self-developing and self-regulating system. The first philosophers inevitably had to face the question of what should be considered the fundamental principle, the root cause of all existing things. Thales (the oldest of the Milesian natural philosophers) and Anaximenes believed that the primary substance from which everything arises and into which, in the end, everything turns into, must be one of the four basic elements. At the same time, Thales preferred water, and Anaximenes preferred air. However, Anaximander advanced further than all others along the path of abstract-theoretical understanding of natural phenomena. He declared the so-called "apeiron" to be the root cause and basis of all that exists - an eternal and infinite substance, qualitatively not reducible to any of the four elements and at the same time being in continuous motion, during which opposite principles stand out from apeiron: warm and cold, dry and damp, etc. The picture of the world drawn by Anaximander was completely new and unusual for the era in which it arose. Greek natural philosophers well understood that the most reliable basis of all knowledge is experience, empirical research and observation. In essence, they were not only the first philosophers, but also the first scientists, the founders of Greek and all European science. The eldest of them, Thales, was already called by the ancients "the first mathematician", "the first astronomer", "the first physicist".

3.4. ARCHITECTURE AND SCULPTURE

In the VII-VI centuries. BC e. Greek architects for the first time after a long break began to build monumental temple buildings from stone, limestone or marble. In the VI century. BC e. a single common Greek type of temple was developed in the form of a rectangular, elongated building, surrounded on all sides by a colonnade, sometimes single (peripter), sometimes double (dipter). At the same time, the main structural and artistic features of the two main architectural orders were determined: Doric and Ionic. Typical examples of the Doric order with such characteristic features as severe power and heavy massiveness can be considered the temple of Apollo in Corinth (see Fig. 6), the temples of Posidonia (Paestum) in southern Italy and the temples of Selinut in Sicily. More graceful, slender, and at the same time, distinguished by a certain pretentiousness of decorative decoration, the buildings of the Ionic order were represented in the same period by the temples of Hera on about. Samosa,

Artemis at Ephesus (famous monument

architecture, considered one of the "seven wonders

light"), Apollo in Didyma near Miletus.

Single sculpture of the end of the archaic

period is represented by two main types:

depiction of a naked young man - kouros and

a figure dressed in a long, tight-fitting

body of a girl's chiton - bark. rice. 6 Columns of the Temple of Apollo in Corinth

Gradually improving in the transfer of the proportions of the human body, achieving an increasing life similarity, the Greek sculptors of the VI century. BC e. have learned to overcome the static inherent in their statues.

With all the lifelikeness of the best examples of Greek archaic sculpture, almost all of them are subject to a certain aesthetic standard, depicting a beautiful, ideally built young man or adult man, completely devoid of any individual physical or mental characteristics.

3.5. VASE PAINTING

The most widespread and accessible type of archaic Greek art was, of course, vase painting. In their work, aimed at the widest consumer, master vase painters depended much less than sculptors or architects on the canons consecrated by religion or the state. Therefore, their art was much more dynamic, diverse and quickly responded to all sorts of artistic discoveries and experiments. Probably, this explains the extraordinary thematic diversity characteristic of the Greek vase painting of the 7th-6th centuries. BC e. It was in vase painting, earlier than in any other branch of Greek art, with the possible exception of coroplasty and bone carving, that mythological scenes began to alternate with episodes of a genre character.

4. GREEK CULTURE IN THE 5TH CENTURY BC

As in other areas of life, in the culture of the 5th century. BC. there is a combination of traditional features dating back to the archaic and even earlier eras, and completely different ones, generated by new phenomena in the socio-economic and political spheres. The birth of the new did not mean the death of the old. Just as in cities the construction of new temples was very rarely accompanied by the destruction of old ones, so in other areas of culture the old receded, but usually did not disappear completely. The most important new factor, which has had the most significant impact on the course of cultural evolution in this century, is the consolidation and development of the polis, especially the democratic one. But there were also Greco-Persian wars, which caused a rise in pan-Greek patriotism, the Peloponnesian War had a certain impact on the development of culture, which gave rise to a sense of hopelessness and despair among a number of representatives of the intellectual elite.

4.1. RELIGION

In the first half of the 5th c. BC e. there are important changes in the religious ideology of the Greeks. Unfortunately, they are little known to us and are reflected most often in literary works. The rise of the classical polis, the victory over the Persians had important consequences for the popular outlook. Modern researchers note the growth of religiosity among the Greeks.

From the point of view of traditional ideas, in the war with the Persians, their deities also fought on the side of the Greeks, which, in particular, Herodotus mentions. The second important circumstance connected with the rise of the classical polis is the feeling of historical optimism, which was also reflected in the religious consciousness. The most important feature of the next, "Pericles" period was the strengthening, at least in Athens, of the tendency to complete fusion within the framework of a single pantheon of polis and folk deities. The most ancient deities of Attica, Athena and Poseidon, are now revered jointly both on the Athenian Acropolis and on Cape Sunius. The cult of Athena is being strengthened (see Fig. 7). The influence of the cult of Dionysus is growing, in which democratic rice is clearly traced. 7 Statue of the goddess Athena. some trends (see Figure 8). The prestige of the Hellenic sanctuaries at Olympia and Delphi is still great, but the importance of Delos is somewhat decreasing after it was completely under the rule of Athens.

Last third of the 5th c. BC e. allows us to speak about a certain crisis in the religious consciousness of the Greeks, which had several reasons. The most severe disasters that befell the Hellenic world during the years of the Peloponnesian War broke the spirit of optimism that prevailed in previous years, and at the same time undermined faith in the goodness of the gods - the guarantors of the existing order. The second important reason for the crisis is the complication of the nature of society, its social structure, which ceased to correspond to traditional religious ideas, ascending fig. 8 Hermes with Dionysus

to deep antiquity. Among the causes - and at the same time the results - of the spiritual crisis should be called the criticism of traditional ideas and institutions of society, including religion, by the sophists. Sophistic ideas spread most of all among the top of society. At the same time, the scale and depth of this crisis cannot be exaggerated. It was in the midst of the decline of old ideas that new religious ideas were born. In particular, at this time, the idea of ​​​​a personal connection between a person and a deity becomes popular. We meet it, for example, in Euripides, who, in general, had a very negative attitude towards traditional views. The importance of new cults is growing, for example, the god of healing Asclepius. Some old cults are being revived due to changes in their functions. The decline of traditional beliefs leads to the widespread penetration into Hellas of foreign cults, Thracian and Asian. The religious consciousness of the era is also characterized by the spread of mysticism.

4.2. PHILOSOPHY

In the philosophy of the V century. BC e. natural philosophy remained the leading direction. The most prominent representatives of the spontaneous-materialistic natural philosophy of this time are Heraclitus of Ephesus, Anaxagoras and Empedocles. Philosophers of the 5th century BC e. the main attention was paid to the search for the primary element. Heraclitus, for example, saw him on fire. According to Anaxagoras, the world was originally a motionless mixture, consisting of the smallest particles (“seeds”), to which the mind (nus) gave movement. Anaxagora's concept of the mind meant a radical opposition of the source of motion to inert matter; it had a significant impact on the further development of philosophical thought (the idea of ​​a "primary impulse" in modern philosophy). Empedocles saw four primary elements (he called them "the roots of all things"): fire, air, earth and water. The theory of four elements, thanks to its perception by Aristotle, remained the foundation of European physics until the 17th century. BC e.

Ancient Greek materialism reached its peak in the teachings of Leucippus of Miletus and Democritus of Abdera. Leucippus laid the foundations of atomistic philosophy. His student Democritus not only accepted the cosmological theory of his teacher, but expanded and refined it, creating a universal philosophical system. Democritus threw the world a great word - the atom. For the first time in the history of philosophy, Democritus created a detailed theory of knowledge, the starting point of which is sensory experience. A large place in the teachings of Democritus was occupied by social and ethical problems. He considered democracy to be the best form of government, and serene wisdom to be the highest virtue. The materialistic philosophy of Democritus had a huge impact on the development of European philosophy and the natural sciences.

From the middle of the 5th c. BC e. a decisive turn takes place in the spiritual life of Greece: henceforth, the center of philosophy is not the world, but man. Sophists (from the Greek word "sophos" - "wise") played a significant role in this spiritual upheaval. The emergence of the sophistic movement is associated with a general complication of the structure of society, which has found its expression both in an increase in the number of socio-professional groups, the emergence of a layer of professional political figures, and in an increase in the amount of specific knowledge necessary for successful political activity. Another reason for the birth of the sophistic movement is the logic of the internal development of knowledge itself. The stronger the gap between natural philosophy and real knowledge became, the greater became public skepticism about natural philosophy. The sophists became the spokesmen for this skepticism.

Socrates acted as an irreconcilable enemy of the sophists in Athens, although from the point of view of everyday consciousness (as, for example, it is reflected in Aristophanes), Socrates himself is not only a sophist, but even their head. Socrates was, most likely, not a philosopher, but a folk sage who opposed the sophists, but who accepted everything positive that their teaching contained. Socrates did not create his own school, although he was constantly surrounded by students. The views of Socrates reflected some new phenomena in the life of Greek society, primarily Athenian. He emphasized the need for professional knowledge for success in any area of ​​life,

4.3. SEPARATION OF SCIENCES

5th century BC e. can be considered the time of the birth of science as a special field of activity. Natural philosophy of the archaic era and the first half of the 5th century. BC e. in essence, it represented a kind of synthetic science, in which both general cosmogonic constructions and observations and conclusions of a more particular nature, belonging to individual scientific disciplines, merged. However, ancient Greek science could preserve such a character only up to a certain level. The expansion of the sphere of knowledge, the increase in its sum, led not only to the branching off of natural philosophy of individual sciences, but also (sometimes) to conflict between them.

A) medicine.

Particularly indicative is the progress in medicine, associated primarily with the activities of Hippocrates. It would be a great mistake to assume, as is sometimes done today, that Greek medicine originated in the sanctuaries. In Greece, in the era of rationalism, there were two medical traditions: the medicine of spells, dreams, signs and miracles in the orbit of the sanctuaries, and the medical art, independent and entirely secular, to which Hippocrates belonged. They were parallel, but completely different from each other. In the Hippocratic Collection, treatises of three large groups of doctors can be distinguished. There are doctors-theorists, philosophers-lovers of speculative speculation. They are opposed by the doctors of the Knidos school, who have such a great respect for facts that they are unable to go beyond them. Finally, in the third group - and Hippocrates and his students belong to it, that is, the Cossian school - there are doctors who, based on observation, proceeding from it and only from it, persistently strive to interpret and understand it. These three schools are equally opposed to the medicine of the sanctuaries. But only the Kos school founded medicine as a science.

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B) Mathematics.

During the 5th century BC e. mathematics turns into an independent scientific discipline, freeing itself from the influence of the Pythagoreans and becoming the subject of professional activity of scientists who did not adjoin any philosophical direction. Important for the development of mathematics was the creation of the deductive method (the logical conclusion of consequences from a small number of initial premises). The progress of mathematical knowledge is especially noticeable in arithmetic, geometry, and stereometry. Significant advances in astronomy also belong to this time. Anaxagoras was the first scientist to give a correct explanation of solar and lunar eclipses.

C) historiography.

Only in relation to the V century. BC e. one can also speak of the birth of historiography: the Ionian logographs are being replaced by historians. The pinnacle of Greek historiography was the strictly rational work of Thucydides. Herodotus, whom Cicero called the "father of history", can be considered a transitional link from logographs to Thucydides. The main theme of Herodotus' "History" is the Greco-Persian wars.

The theme of Thucydides' work was the history of the Peloponnesian War - this is contemporary history. Only at the very beginning does he give in a very brief form a general outline of the history of Hellas from ancient times, all other content is strictly limited to the task at hand. Thucydides consciously opposed his method to that of his predecessors, the logographers and Herodotus. He can be considered the founder of historical criticism. Thucydides sees his task in creating a true history of the Peloponnesian War. History, from the point of view of Thucydides, is not a mechanistic process, cognizable on the basis of logical analysis, because blind forces also act (natural events, unforeseen coincidence of circumstances - in a word, everything that is embraced by the concept of "blind chance"). The interaction of the rational and the irrational forms the real historical process. Thucydides also assigns a significant role to prominent political figures, emphasizing their ability to understand the direction of the historical process and act in accordance with it.

4.4. GREEK LITERATURE IN THE FIFTH CENTURY BC

The beginning of the century sees the decline of choral lyrics - that genre of literature that dominated the archaic era; at the same time, Greek tragedy was born - the genre of literature most fully corresponding to the spirit of the classical policy (see Fig. 9). This early Attic tragedy of the late 6th and early 5th centuries. was not yet a drama in the full sense of the word. It was one of the offshoots of choral lyrics, but differed in two essential features: 1) in addition to the choir, there was an actor who made a message to the choir, exchanged remarks with the choir or with its leader (coryphaeus); rice. 9 Tragic Mask

while the chorus did not leave the scene, the actor left, returned, made new messages to the chorus about what was happening behind the scenes and, if necessary, could change his appearance, playing the roles of different people in his various parishes; 2) the choir took part in the game, depicting a group of persons put in a plot connection with those who were represented by the actor. The quantitative parts of the actor were still very insignificant, and he, nevertheless, was the bearer of the dynamics of the game, since the lyrical moods of the choir changed depending on his messages.

Aristocratic in origin, ideas, method of expression, choral lyrics pass into the 5th century. BC e. from the previous one, represented by such recognized masters as Simonides of Ceos and Pindar from Thebes - the last and most striking singer of the Greek aristocracy (he himself came from a Theban aristocratic family). Pindar's style is distinguished by solemnity, pomp, richness of exquisite images and epithets, often retaining a connection with the figurative system of folklore.

Most of the poems of Pindar's rival Bacchilids that have come down to us also belong to the epinician genre. In the work of Bacchilids, one can clearly see the desire to adapt the traditional genre to new tasks, new conditions of life. The strict aristocracy of Pindar is alien to him. His praises are interesting, in which individual episodes of myths are lyrically developed.

4.5. THEATER OF ANCIENT GREECE

The theater occupied a special place in the life of the Greeks and in many ways was not like the modern one (see Fig. 10). In Athens, theatrical performances took place initially once a year (then twice), during the feast of the god Dionysus (Great Dionysus).

Fig. 10 This amphitheater in Epidaurus is a holiday of the beginning of spring, which at the same time marked the opening of navigation after the winter winds, when performances were going on for three days from morning to evening, which were then discussed throughout the year. The theater, unlike choral lyrics, is addressed to the entire demos, it is more democratic, it serves as a platform from which those who seek to convince the demos of the correctness of their own ideas and thoughts address the demos. The theater became a true educator of the people, it formed the views and beliefs of free citizens. The theatrical spectacle was massive, the audience was most of the citizens, the organization of performances is one of the most important and honorable liturgies; since the time of Pericles, the state has given money to the poorest citizens to pay for tickets. Theatrical performances were competitive in nature, plays by several authors were staged, and a jury elected from citizens determined the winner.

4.6. ART AND ARCHITECTURE

According to the most common periodization of the history of Greek fine arts and architecture of the 5th century BC. BC e. It is customary to divide into two large periods: the art of the early classics, or strict style, and the art of high, or developed, classics.

A) The art of the early classics.

The art of this period is illuminated by the ideas of the liberation struggle against the Persians and the triumph of the policy. The heroic character and increased attention to the human citizen, who created a world where he is free and where his dignity is respected, distinguishes the art of the early classics. The two types of figures that previously dominated sculpture - kuros and kore - are being replaced by a much greater variety of types; sculptures tend to convey the complex movement of the human body. In architecture, the classical type of the peripteral temple and its sculptural decoration are being formed.

Landmarks in the development of early classical architecture and sculpture were such buildings as the treasury of the Athenians in Delphi, the temple of Athena Aphaia on about. Aegina, the so-called temple of E at Selinunte and the temple of Zeus at Olympia. The task of the classics was to depict a person in motion. The master of the pores of the early classics took the first step towards great realism, towards the depiction of personality, and it is natural that this process began with the solution of an easier task - the transfer of the movement of the human body. The following, more difficult task fell to the share of high classics - to convey the movements of the soul.

For vase painting of this time, the most characteristic is no longer following painting in the field of stylistics, but independent development. In search of visual means, vase painters not only followed monumental art, but, as representatives of the most democratic form of art, they overtook it in some ways, depicting scenes from real life. In the same decades, the black-figure style declined and the red-figure style flourished, when the natural color of clay was preserved for the figures, while the space between them was filled with black lacquer.

B) Art of the High Classics.

The art of high classics is a clear continuation of what arose earlier, but there is one area where a fundamentally new one is being born at this time - urbanism. Although the accumulation of experience and some empirically found principles of urban planning was the result of the creation of new cities during the period of the Great Colonization, it was during the high classics that the theoretical generalization of this experience, the creation of an integral concept and its implementation in practice took place. The birth of urban planning as a theoretical and practical discipline that combines artistic and utilitarian goals is associated with the name of Hippodames of Miletus.

The temple was still the leading type of building. Temples of the Doric order are being actively built in the Greek West: several temples in Agrigentum, among which stands out the so-called temple of Concordia (in fact, Hera Argeia), considered the best of the Dorian temples in Italy.

The architecture of the high classics is characterized by a striking proportion, combined with a festive monumentality. Continuing the traditions of the previous time, the architects at the same time did not slavishly follow the canons, they boldly looked for new means to enhance the expressiveness of the structures they created, most fully reflecting the ideas embodied in them. During the construction of the Parthenon, in particular, Iktin and Kallikrat boldly went to combine the features of the Doric and Ionic orders in one building (see Fig. 11). The Erechtheion is extremely peculiar - the only temple in Greek architecture with an absolutely asymmetrical plan. The solution of one of its porticos is also original, where the columns are replaced by six figures of caryatid girls.

In sculpture, the art of high classics is associated primarily with the work of Myron, Phidias and Polykleitos. Miron completed the search for the masters of the previous time, who sought to convey the movement of a person in sculpture. Phidias became famous for his sculptures of deities, especially Zeus and Athena. In the 60s, Phidias creates a colossal statue of Athena Promachos, which towered in the center of the Acropolis. The ideal citizen of the policy - fig. 11 The marble building of the Parthenon is the main theme of the work of another sculptor of this time - Polykleitos from Argos. The most famous is his statue of Doryphoros (a young man with a spear), which the Greeks considered an exemplary work. Doryphorus Polikleitos is the embodiment of a physically and spiritually perfect person.

Unfortunately, we know almost nothing about the great Greek artists (Apollodorus, Zeuxis, Parrhasius), except for a description of some of their paintings and information about their skill. According to ancient authors, Apollodorus of Athens discovered at the end of the 5th century. BC e. the effect of chiaroscuro, i.e. laid the foundation for painting in the modern sense of the word. Parrasius strove to convey spiritual movements by means of painting.

5. GREECE IN THE IV CENTURY BC

5.1 PHILOSOPHY

A) Plato, Aristotle.

4th century BC e. turned out to be a very fruitful period for the development of culture, especially philosophy, oratory. At this time, the two most famous philosophical systems were created - Plato and Aristotle. Plato (426-347 BC) belonged to a famous aristocratic family in Athens. His philosophical concept turned out to be closely intertwined with socio-political views. In the treatises "State" and "Laws" Plato created a model of an ideal policy with a carefully developed estate system, strict control of the top of society over the activities of the lower classes. He considered the correct interpretation of the concept of virtue, justice to be the basis of the correct construction of the state, therefore, philosophers, people with knowledge, should have been at the head of the policy.

No less popular was the teaching of Aristotle (384-322 BC), a philosopher who had long and strong ties with the Macedonian court. A student of Plato, Aristotle was engaged in scientific research and teaching at the Lyceum gymnasium in Athens. Aristotle went down in history primarily as a scientist-encyclopedist. His legacy is a real body of knowledge accumulated by Greek science by the 4th century BC. BC e .: according to some reports, the number of works written by him approached a thousand. Aristotle, unlike his teacher, believed that the material world is primary, and the world of ideas is secondary, that form and content are inseparable from each other as two sides of one phenomenon. The doctrine of nature appears in his treatises primarily as a doctrine of motion, and this is one of the most interesting and strong points of Aristotle's system. He is considered an outstanding representative of dialectics, which was for him a method of obtaining true and reliable knowledge from probable and plausible knowledge. The scientist also acted as a historian, teacher, theoretician of eloquence, creator of ethical and political doctrine.

B) The teachings of the Cynics.

In the same period, Antisthenes (450-360 BC) and Diogenes of Sinop (died c. 330-320 BC) laid the foundations for the philosophical teachings of the Cynics, which flourished at a later time. Cynics 4th c. BC e. opposed themselves to traditional forms of life and the establishment of the policy, taught to limit needs. The foundations of correct behavior, in their opinion, should be sought in the life of animals and in the early stages of human society.

5.2. HISTORIANS OF GREECE IN THE 4TH CENTURY

The historical genre was represented, first of all, by the famous historian Xenophon, a native of Athens (428-354 BC). The main historical work of Xenophon, "Greek History", chronologically continues the work of Thucidus, covering the period from the end of the Peloponnesian War to the Battle of Mantinea, and serves as one of the main sources for the history of the 4th century BC. BC e. The main drawback of Xenophon's work is conscious bias: he reshapes history to his liking, creating a generally distorted picture, because some events are simply hushed up, others that are quite important, he speaks in passing, and inflates others in every possible way. Xenophon is also known as the author of treatises on the life and philosophy of Socrates, military memoirs, works on the economy and organization of the economy, a study on tyranny, and special works on cavalry and hunting.

In addition to the work of Xenophon, from historical works of the 4th century. BC e. excerpts from the "Oxyrhynchus History" by an unknown author, describing the events of the 90s, have come down. The manuscript got its name from the place of discovery - the city of Oksyrhynchus in Egypt. The few surviving fragments make it impossible to get an idea of ​​the composition of the work and the principles of its construction. One can definitely speak only of a very detailed presentation of events and a discrepancy in the description of facts with Xenophon.

The works of other historians of this period have not survived, only a few scattered passages have survived; the names of the authors and the titles of the works came down in the transmission of other writers.

5.3. ORATORY.

Greece 4th century BC e. gave a galaxy of brilliant speakers. The beginning of the cultivation of the spoken word was laid by the sophists, who, being themselves outstanding masters of eloquence, taught others this art. They founded schools where, for a fee, everyone could learn the rules for constructing a speech, the proper manner of pronouncing it, and the effective presentation of the material.

There are two main types of speeches - political and judicial. Political speeches were recognized as the highest achievement of oratory, and among them deliberative speeches were considered the most important, that is, devoted to the discussion of specific issues that required the adoption of specific measures. Of the representatives of the older generation of speakers, Antiphon, Andocides and Gorgias were the most famous. Socrates (436-338 BC) was also an outstanding speaker, his ancient biographers numbered up to 60 speeches belonging to him, only a third have survived to this day. Demosthenes (384-322 BC) also left a memory of himself as an outstanding orator. Two orators glorified themselves not in the political, but in the judicial field. Lysias (459-380 BC), liveliness of the image, good knowledge of the laws, amazing, according to Dionysius of Halicarnassus, elegance of speech provided him with invariable victories in legal proceedings. The long and frequent practice of speaking, the appearance of brilliant and famous orators could not pass without leaving a mark on theoretical thought. In the IV century. BC e. A fundamental study devoted to eloquence appeared - Aristotle's "Rhetoric". It gives such an interesting and deep analysis of the art of persuasion that many centuries later, in our day, propaganda specialists find ideas there that were considered the achievement of only a new time.

5.4. LITERATURE

During this period, oratory, philosophy, historical writings took a leading place in literature, clearly crowding out other genres - drama and lyrics. Although theaters continued to flourish, even new ones were built, and the audience willingly visited them, tastes have changed significantly. The moral foundations of life, acute political and social conflicts, the problems of good and evil in the private and public spheres attracted less and less attention. The interests of people have narrowed significantly, focused on private life. A clear decline is also observed in the lyrics. 4th century BC e. gave only one famous lyricist - Timothy of Miletus, from whose poetic heritage only fragments have been preserved. He enjoyed great popularity in Hellas, is mentioned with praise by Plato and Aristotle.

5.5. ART

Similar processes took place in art. 4th century BC e. usually regarded as the time of the late classics, the period of transition to the art of Hellenism.

A) architecture.

It is indicative that after the Peloponnesian War, monumental construction was not only reduced, but its centers also moved: instead of Attica, they became the Peloponnese and Asia Minor. Pausanias, who left a description of the most famous monuments of Greece, considered the temple of Athena Alea in Tegea to be the most beautiful building in the Peloponnese, replacing the old one that burned down in 394. It was built and decorated by the famous master Skopas. Contemporaries were interested in the layout of Megalopolis, a city built by the Arcadians as the center of the Arcadian Union.

Architecture began to take on a slightly different character: if earlier temple buildings played a leading role in it, now more attention has been paid to civil architecture - theaters,

rice. 12 The palaestras of the meeting rooms, palaestras, and gymnasiums were destroyed (see fig. 12). New trends in architecture were also expressed in the desire to create a common Hellenic style - koine; the same unification took place here as in the language. The outstanding architects of this time included Philo, Scopas, Polykleitos the Younger, Pytheas.

The rise was experienced by the architecture of small forms, which has much in common with sculpture. Its typical example is the monument to the head of the choir Lysicrates, built by him in Athens after winning the competition in 335. Such structures were usually erected at private expense.

B) Sculpture.

New demands began to be made to sculpture. If in the previous period it was considered necessary to create an abstract embodiment of certain physical and mental qualities, an average image, now the sculptors showed attention to a specific person, his individuality. There was a search for means to convey the shades of the movement of the soul, mood, beauty and spirituality of a person, the desire to show the diversity of characters. The greatest success in this was achieved by Scopas, Praxiteles, Lysippus, Timothy, Briaxides.

B) painting.

On painting in the 4th century BC e. can be judged mainly from the information preserved by ancient authors. Judging by them, she reached a high level not only in practice, but also in theory. Such paintings were widely known by the founder of the Sicyon school, Eumolpus, whose student, Pamphilus, created a treatise on artistic skill. The tendencies of Scopas were close to the artist Aristide the Elder, one of whose paintings depicted a mother dying on the battlefield, to whose breast a child reaches. The work of Nikias "Perseus and Andromeda" is copied on one of the frescoes in Pompeii. This artist was highly valued by Praxiteles, trusting him to tint his marble statues. In the IV century. BC e. the art of small forms flourished, marked by grace and grace. It is glorified by the terracotta masters of Tanagra. Vase painting, on the contrary, entered a period of decline: the compositions became too complicated, the pomp of the decor increased, and negligence appeared in the drawing. In general, the art of this period is regarded by researchers as a time of fundamental shifts, intensive searches, the emergence of trends that ended in the Hellenistic era.

Conclusion.

It is customary to divide the entire history of ancient Greece into two large eras: 1) Mycenaean civilization and 2) ancient civilization. A characteristic feature of early Greek culture was the amazing unity of its style, clearly marked by originality, vitality and humanity. Man occupied a significant place in the worldview of this society; moreover, the artists paid attention to representatives of various professions and social strata, the inner world of each character. The peculiarity of the culture of early Hellas is reflected in the surprisingly harmonious combination of the motives of nature and the requirements of style, which are found in the works of its best masters of art. And if initially artists, especially Cretan ones, strove more for embellishment, then already from the 17th-16th centuries. BC e. Creativity of Hellas is full of vitality. I want to note that Greek culture is characterized by a certain traditional character, the preservation of a number of concepts, for example, the motif of a running spiral, preserved from the culture of the North Balkan tribes of the Neolithic era, “Pillars of Heaven” in Thessaly, which received magnificent development in the Cycladic art of the III millennium BC. e. and repeatedly reproduced in the II millennium BC. e. in the ornamentation not only of the monumental royal tholoses, but also in the decor of household items, especially dishes.

In the XXX-XII centuries. BC e. Greece's population has gone through a difficult path of economic, political and spiritual development. This period of history is characterized by an intensive growth of production, which created conditions in a number of regions of the country for the transition from the primitive communal to the early class system. The parallel existence of these two social systems determined the originality of the history of Greece in the Bronze Age. It should be noted that many achievements of the Hellenes of that time were the basis of the brilliant culture of the Greeks of the classical era and, together with it, entered the treasury of European culture.

Then, for several centuries, called the "Dark Ages" (XI-IX centuries BC), in their development, the peoples of Hellas, for reasons unknown so far, can be said to be thrown back to the primitive communal system.

The “Dark Ages” are followed by the Archaic period - this is the time of the emergence, first of all, of writing (based on Phoenician), then philosophy: mathematics, natural philosophy, then the extraordinary wealth of lyric poetry, etc. The Greeks, skillfully using the achievements of the previous cultures of Babylon, Egypt , create their own art, which had a huge impact on all subsequent stages of European culture. During the archaic period, a well-thought-out and clear system of architectural forms was gradually created, which became the basis for all further development of Greek architecture. Nothing is known about the monumental painting of the archaic period. Obviously, it existed, but for some reason it was not preserved. But we can judge vase painting, which, unlike many other arts, is much more dynamic, diverse and responds faster to all kinds of artistic discoveries and experiments. Thus, the period of the archaic can be called the period of a sharp leap in the cultural development of Greece.

The archaic period is followed by the classical period (V-IV centuries BC). In the philosophy of the V century. BC e. the main direction is natural philosophy, materialistic at its core, and Pythagoreanism, which opposes it. But the more it breaks away from real knowledge, the greater is the public skepticism towards natural philosophy, which the sophists became the spokesmen for. The emergence of the sophistic movement is associated with a general complication of the structure of society. They played a big role in the spiritual upheaval in Greek society in the middle of the 5th century. BC e., as a result of which the center of philosophy is not the world, but man.

End of the 5th-4th century. BC e. - the period of the stormy spiritual life of Greece, the formation of the idealistic ideas of Socrates and Plato, which developed in the struggle against the materialistic philosophy of Democritus, and the emergence of the teachings of the Cynics.

Describing the culture of Greece as a whole, it should be noted that a step forward was made in politics, science and art. The culture created by the Greeks occupies a very special place in the heritage on which human civilization relies in its subsequent historical development. It is no coincidence that in philosophy, as in many other areas of culture, we will constantly turn to the exploits of that small people, whose universal talent and activity ensured it such a place in the history of the development of mankind. I believe that we can rightfully call the culture of Ancient Greece the cradle of European culture.

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Introduction.

ANTIQUITY AS THE CRADE OF EUROPEAN CIVILIZATION.

1. World significance of the literature of Ancient Greece. 2. Antiquity and the East. 3. Ancient heritage in Europe. 4. Antiquity and Russian culture. Geography and ethnography of the ancient world. 6. Sources of knowledge about antiquity. 7 Greek way of life. 8. Periodization of Greek literature. 9. Interdisciplinary connections. 10. Literature.

The history of mankind gives the most important lesson: everything in life is transient. People are leaving, the faces of cities and natural landscapes are changing. Many things turn into ashes with ruthless time. The only thing that is not subject to time is great art.

And here ancient Greece played a unique role. Its civilization, art and literature.

HISTORICAL ROLE OF ELLAS.

The Greeks themselves called their country Hellas, themselves - Hellenes. The concepts of Ancient Greece and Hellas have a synonym: antiquity. "Antique" in Latin means: ancient, ancient. At the everyday level, we perceive antiquity as an era, infinitely from us from; lazy, fabulous, fanned with myths. It is associated with the school textbook "History of the Ancient World". We simply do not think about how much of what was created by the ancient Hellenes organically entered our daily lives. Meanwhile, Ancient Greece is the cradle of European culture.

In everyday speech, in books, newspapers, magazines, we, literally at every step, meet with a lot of words of Greek and Latin origin, which make up a layer of socio-political vocabulary. Concepts and terms: economics, politics, philosophy, aesthetics, logic, dialectics, many others are constantly on the lips. The buildings around us, the architecture of palaces, stadiums, theaters, temples, many of their constructive solutions - columns, capitals, arches, vaults, bas-reliefs, moldings, full of symmetry and harmony - are the fruit of the creativity of the ancient Greeks. Even in the elementary grades, schoolchildren, learning the fundamental laws of mathematics and physics, join the discoveries of the great scientists of antiquity Archimedes, Pythagoras, Euclid.

The ancient Greeks were the founders in various fields of knowledge. They laid the foundations for many exact, natural and human sciences: physics and mathematics, anatomy and astronomy, philosophy and philology, pedagogy and aesthetics, history and eloquence. The conceptual conclusions of Plato and Aristotle about the essence and laws of art retain their inexorable value even today. Every year, millions of tourists come to Greece to see with their own eyes the immortal monuments of antiquity, such as the Parthenon and the Erechtheion, the Propylaea, the temple of Zeus. Reverently they rise to the hill of the Acropolis, towering over Athens.

GREECE HOMELAND OF DEMOCRACY.

One of the main merits of the ancient Hellenes was that they gave mankind the great idea of ​​democracy. Athens, in its heyday, set an example of such a system of government, which corresponds to the will of the majority of the free population. The word "democracy" means the rule of the people. Democracy assumed the participation of all free citizens in public affairs, in government, discussion and adoption of laws. Greek democracy was based on fundamental principles: elective power, responsibility of power and change of power.

Mankind has known different forms and types of government: monarchy, despotism, empire. The 20th century showed the terrible results of the domination of totalitarian regimes. Only democracy is the most consistent with human nature and therefore provides the conditions for development, constant reform and improvement. Winston Churchill was right when he said that democracy is by no means perfect, but humanity has not yet come up with anything better than it.

Democracy in Greece created the most favorable conditions for the development of all forms of creative activity. The flowering of democratic Athens under Pericles coincided with the greatest rise of literature and art.

1. World significance of the literature of Ancient Greece

The main genres of modern literature: epic, lyric, novel, story, tragedy and comedy, poem and ode, satire, fable and epigram, oratorical, historical and philosophical prose originated and developed among the ancient Greeks and Romans. Over the course of a long historical development, these genres underwent changes and were enriched.

Enduring universal human values ​​contained in literary images, in the artistic creations of antiquity. And let today a person cover the distance not in carts and not on horses, but in comfortable cars, on jet planes, spacecraft. Let him know immeasurably more about the world than his distant ancestors. But human nature itself has hardly changed compared to the era of Homer and Aeschylus. A person is born and dies, suffers from illnesses and becomes decrepit, loves happily and unrequitedly, is jealous and unfaithful, raises children and loses them, shows stinginess and selfishness, courage and good-heartedness, generosity and meanness, lust for power and cowardice. These eternal passions and feelings are captured, and, moreover, with unsurpassed aesthetic completeness, in the works of the great Hellenes - Homer and Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides, Aristophanes and Menander, Anacreon and Sappho.

And today we continue to worry about the fate of Penelope, anxiously waiting for her husband; devoted Andromache; adamant Prometheus and experienced the bitter insight of the unfortunate king Oedipus, who fell from the pinnacle of power and glory into the abyss of shame; ruthless vengeful Medea, abandoned by her husband and repaid him by killing her own children.

Plots and images of ancient mythology and literature are distinguished by harmonious completeness and plasticity, transparent and deep meaning. The figures of Greek myths, such as Hercules and Orpheus, Pygmalion, Daedalus and Icarus, Antaeus and Tantalus, have passed through the centuries, embodied in countless literary, pictorial, sculptural, and musical works.

2. Antiquity and the East

The Hellenes, in turn, inherited all the best that was in the cultures of other states, in particular the Ancient East. In the Middle East, in Egypt, China, India, long before the appearance of the first Greek states, powerful monarchies and the richest civilizations flourished. At the time of the invasion of the Achaean (Greek) tribes on Crete (XV century BC), ancient Egypt was experiencing a time of exaltation, established hegemony over Syria, the state of Assyria entered the “middle” period of its history, and in China the oldest hieroglyphic writing already existed . The Trojan War, depicted in Homer's Iliad, coincided with the collapse of the Hittite (XVIII-XII centuries BC) kingdom, and in parallel with the later "Homeric Greece" - the ancient state of Israel was created in Palestine, the kingdom was strengthened Urartu in the Caucasus, Scythians appeared in Eastern Europe, and Carthage was gaining strength in northern Africa. During the heyday of Athens, i.e. V century. BC e. there was a major clash with the Persian state: the Greco-Persian wars, which lasted several decades, left a deep mark both in art and in the attitude of the ancient Hellenes.

The Greek states had diverse connections with ancient Egypt, which maintained trade with Crete, Cyprus, and Aegina. After the campaigns of Alexander the Great, the Greeks penetrated into Syria, Palestine, and Egypt.

The cultural ties between Greece and the East are diverse, but not fully understood. The famous Palace of Knossos on Crete outwardly resembles the majestic buildings of the eastern monarchs. In Egypt, at that time, the "Book of the Dead" was created, tales about two brothers, about Truth and Krivda, love lyrics; in Palestine and Syria there was a rich literature; Bogazgei and Ugarit libraries; in India - the great poem "Rigveda"; in China - a book of ancient songs "Shijing".

The Mycenaean leaders of the tribes that lived in the Peloponnese pursued an expansionist policy aimed at the East, participated in the colonization of the coast of Asia Minor. The documents in Egyptian and Hittite languages ​​mention the Azizvasha and Lanauna tribes, which corresponds to the references to the Greeks in the Homeric epic. They are called there Achaeans and Danaans.

The early Greek philosopher, mathematician and astronomer Thales (624-546 BC), who was revered as one of the Seven Wise Men, was fond of travel and visited Egypt more than once.

Papyrus (a herbaceous plant that grew in the swamps of the Euphrates and the Nile) was brought to Greece from Egypt, which was used as a writing material. The Berlin Museum, for example, has a papyrus excerpt from the Iliad, recorded in the 1st-2nd centuries. n. e. Thanks to the found papyrus manuscripts, Hesiod, the Greek lyric poets (Alcaeus, Pindar), the great tragedians Sophocles and Euripides, and many others have come down to us.

In the mid-1980s, the American linguist C. Watkins made a sensational discovery. Among the archaeological documents on the ancient history of Asia Minor, he discovered a passage in the Luvian language. This is one of the dead Asian languages, in which a fragment of epic poetry is written, which, apparently, is 500 years older than Homer's Iliad. From this passage it follows that Troy may have been called Vilusa among the locals, and the Trojans themselves spoke the Luvian language. If we recognize this version as justified, then it should be considered that the Trojans are the indigenous population of Asia Minor, that they are nationally alien to the Greeks, they had a written language earlier than the Greeks. All this, by no means, does not detract from the greatness of the Iliad and the Odyssey, but sheds new light on the origin of two masterpieces of world literature.

Eastern themes were reflected in folklore, in the legend of the Argonauts who visited Colchis, the territory of Western Georgia. Weaving products of the inhabitants of the mountains were highly valued. The Caucasian tribes, who spoke 70 languages ​​and 300 dialects, were drawn into trade relations with Greece, and later with Rome. Later, in the Roman era, about 130 translators were required to communicate with them.

Fruitful ties with the East were also evidenced by the “heaps of Greek historians Xenophon and Herodotus. The first of them, for example, repeatedly traveled outside Greece, participated in the campaign of the Persian king Cyrus the Younger against his brother Artaxerxes. (or "The Campaign of Cyrus"). This is one of the first memoirs in European literature. Peru of Xenophon also owns the famous work "Kyropedia" (or "Education of Cyrus"), It recreates the image of Cyrus the Elder, about whose exploits legendary glory has been preserved.

Herodotus, the "father of history", a tireless traveler, whose wandering routes ran far beyond the borders of Hellas, in Babylon, Scythia, Egypt, Colchis, southern Italy, Asia Minor. He saw many places with his own eyes, told about others from other people's words. In his main work "History" - descriptions of many lands from Egypt and Arabia to India and Ethiopia, the characteristics of such eastern kings as Cyrus, Darius, Cambyses. Herodotus includes in it episodes reworked in the form of short stories, such as the childhood of Cyrus, Helen in Egypt, the treasures of the Egyptian king Rampsenite, Darius' stay with the Scythians, and many others. His work is a kind of encyclopedia of knowledge about the past not only of Greece, but also of its eastern neighbors.

3. Ancient heritage in Europe

ROME AND THE MIDDLE AGES.

In 146 BC e. Greece ceased to exist as an independent state, turned into a province of the Roman Empire. But the Romans, fortunately, turned out to be grateful people in relation to the spiritual wealth that they took possession of. They adopted both the Greek language and Greek culture, literature, philosophy, oratory. Evidence of mastering the artistic experience of the ancient Hellenes is the legacy of outstanding Roman poets and philosophers, such as Cicero, Virgil, Horace, Ovid, Seneca, and others.

With the fall of the Roman Empire (476 AD) and the onset of the Middle Ages, the significance of the ancient, primarily Greek, heritage is noticeably reduced. The dominant Catholic Church had a negative attitude towards all areas of spiritual life that were not permeated with orthodox Christian ideology. Only the Roman poet Virgil was lucky, who was declared a Christian author who predicted the birth of Jesus Christ.

RENAISSANCE.

The next stage is the Renaissance, also called the Renaissance, "the greatest progressive upheaval", marked by an unprecedented creative take-off in all areas of artistic activity. Italy was the birthplace of the European Renaissance. From there, humanistic ideas penetrated into France, England, Germany. The art of the Renaissance, freed from medieval scholasticism and dogma, was permeated with the ideas of humanism, which affirmed the highest value of man. The individual, his nature, free and natural in all its manifestations, was placed at the center of artistic attention.

The most important feature of the Renaissance was the general interest in antiquity. At this time, the actual discovery of the previously forgotten, hidden artistic heritage of Ancient Greece, as well as Rome, took place. In contrast to medieval dogmatism, normativity, schematism, asceticism, humanist writers found in antiquity a living and free ideal of beauty. It is based on loyalty to nature. In the works of Homer and Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides, the humanists joined in with large-scale, relief human characters. The titans of the Renaissance Dante and Petrarch, Shakespeare and Rabelais drew plots and themes, found fruitful sources of artistic ideas in the creations of the ancient Hellenes.

CLASSICISM.

The next era, marked by a lively attention to the ancient heritage, was classicism. It flourished in Europe in the 17th-18th centuries. The very name of this literary trend indicated that it focused on the classics, on the most perfect examples in literature, ancient Greek and Roman. The core of the aesthetics of classicism was the cult of reason and "imitation of nature."

These provisions were most fully summarized and formulated by the French writer Nicolas Boileau in his famous, normative treatise The Art of Poetry (1674). His provisions were embodied in the artistic practice of the great masters. In his treatise, Boileau praised the ancients:

This must be why we love Homer so much,
That the belt of beauty was given to him by Venus.
A priceless treasure is hidden in his creations:
They are like a spring of delights for all ages.

In the tragedies of Corneille, Racine, and partly in the comedies of Moliere, the requirement of three unities was realized: the unity of place, time and action; it was declared an indispensable element of a dramatic work.

In Germany, interest in antiquity was stimulated, in particular, thanks to the tireless activity of Johann Winckelmann, a historian of ancient art, who saw in antiquity "noble simplicity and calm grandeur." Winckelmann's fundamental work The History of the Art of Antiquity (1763) was a revelation to readers.

In the 1780s, Goethe and Schiller, each in their own way, developed the concept of the so-called. "Weimar classicism"; in antiquity they were captivated by the pathos of life-affirmation, the ideal of a harmonious personality and artistic perfection. In the tragedy "Iphigenia in Tauris" (1787), Goethe reworks the ancient Greek myth in accordance with the aesthetics of classicism. In the second part of Faust, Faust's marriage to the beautiful Helena symbolizes the great role of ancient beauty. In the poem "Gods of Greece" Schiller mournfully reflects on the irretrievably gone world of beautiful Hellas. In his Letters on the Aesthetic Education of Man, he insists on the enduring value of ancient art, being convinced that education on its examples can spiritually and morally enrich and elevate the individual.

In general, interest in antiquity in Europe has never faded. The romantics turn to her: the English poets Byron and Shelley, the German poet Hölderlin, the playwright Kleist, the French poet and novelist Hugo.

ANTIQUITY AND XX CENTURY.

Antiquity in the literature of our century is a huge and fascinating topic. Episodes from Homer's poems are at the heart of one of the greatest novels of the 20th century, Ulysses (1922) by James Joyce. Mythological plots and motifs are actively used by many major playwrights. Among them are Hofmannsthal and Hauptmann, Anouil and Sartre, Girodou and Brecht, Eugene O'Neill and Maxwell Anderson, Tennessee Williams and Bernard Shaw. Writers are attracted by such dramatic figures as Alexander the Great, Pericles, Cleopatra, Spartacus, Julius Caesar, Nero, Caligula and etc.

Often the plots and images of the ancient world are embodied in cinema, music and ballet art.

4. Antiquity and Russian culture

Lively relations between Hellas and Russia were stimulated by the fact that there were Greek colonies and settlements on the northern and Caucasian coasts of the Black Sea, as well as in the Crimea. In the chronicle “The Tale of Bygone Years” (XII century), one can read that from time immemorial, along the Volkhov and Dnieper rivers, “the great path from the Varangians to the Greeks” ran: from the shores of the Gulf of Finland, the Normans passed to the Black Sea and sailed to Constantinople ( Constantinople). With the adoption of Christianity, Yaroslav the Wise attracted translators of Greek books.

Ivan III was married to the niece of the last Byzantine Emperor Constantine, Sophia Palaiologos. She arrived in Moscow in 1472, accompanied by a whole staff of her courtiers, who contributed to the spread of Greek culture. It is known that Ivan the Terrible accumulated a valuable library of Greek books, and in his writings he repeatedly referred to the authority of ancient authors. The Annunciation Cathedral in the Kremlin (construction began in the 15th century) was decorated with paintings and frescoes depicting Homer, Virgil, Plato, Aristotle and others.

From the beginning of the XVIII century. Antiquity is increasingly being integrated into Russian culture. Founded in Moscow in 1687, the educational institution - the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy becomes the center of training for the needs of the state and the church, teachers, students of medical schools; in it, among the disciplines were the ancient Greek and Latin languages.

A connoisseur and admirer of antiquity was Lomonosov, who translated Greek and Roman authors. In 1755, Moscow University was founded, which became one of the centers for the study of ancient culture. Since the 18th century, the number of translations of ancient Greek authors into Russian has been continuously growing. Russian readers organically perceive the concepts and images of the ancient world. When creating the poem “Monument”, Derzhavin, and later Pushkin, were inspired by the ode of the outstanding Roman poet Horace: “I erected a monument. According to Radishchev, Homer and Virgil “will be read until the human race is exterminated.”

Antique motifs literally permeate the early lyceum lyrics of Pushkin, who also translated Greek (Anacreon) and Roman (Catullus) poets. The image of the Roman poet Ovid, who was removed from Rome by order of Emperor Augustus, appears more than once in his work. Pushkin, being in exile in Bessarabia, not far from the places where the Roman poet languished, felt a deep consonance between his fate and that of Ovid. In 1829, a translation of the Iliad by N. Gnedich was published in Russia - this was a remarkable page in the literary life of the country. Pushkin responded to the creative feat of Gnedich with inspired lines:

I hear the silent sound of the divine Hellenic speech;
I feel the shadow of the great old man with a confused soul.

In 1849 Zhukovsky translated The Odyssey. It is difficult to name a major Russian writer who would not appreciate the creations of the Hellenes with enthusiastic words and in one way or another would not display them in his work ... Gogol wrote about the happy fullness and richness of life captured in the Homeric epic. Belinsky - about the inexpressible pleasure that he feels when he joins the Greek masterpieces: ... Greek art was the liberation of man from the yoke of nature, a wonderful reconciliation of spirit and nature, it "enlightened and spiritualized all the natural inclinations of man." And further: "All forms of nature were equally beautiful for the artistic soul" of the Hellenic. In the right opinion of the critic, the Greek and Latin languages ​​"should be called the cornerstone of any education, the foundation of schools." Created in the nineteenth century. in Russia, classical gymnasiums provided thorough training in the field of Latin and ancient Greek, as well as ancient literature. At the most important universities, for example, Moscow, St. Petersburg, departments of classical philology were created.

Leo Tolstoy, already at the zenith of his fame, being the author of War and Peace, takes up the study of the ancient Greek language in order to perceive Homer in the original. Among the translators of ancient, in particular ancient Greek, literature were, in addition to Gnedich and Zhukovsky, many outstanding poets: L. May, A. Fet, V. Veresaev, A. Maikov, A. Grigoriev, Vyacheslav Ivanov, I. Annensky, D. Merezhkovsky and others. In the poetry of the "Silver Age" - antique plots, images, motives vary with particular persistence. The wonderful Greek poetess Sappho became the heroine of Mirra Lokhvitskaya's poems. An ardent admirer and connoisseur of Hellas and its art was the poet and critic Innokenty Annensky. Images of ancient Greece are present in many early poems by Osip Mandelstam, in particular, in the collection "Stone". Composer Igor Stravinsky wrote the ballets Agon, Apollo Musaget, Orpheus based on ancient subjects. An outstanding connoisseur of antiquity was V. Ya. Bryusov, an expert and translator of Roman literature. For almost a quarter of a century, with interruptions, he worked on recreating Virgil's poem "Aeneid" in Russian.

It would not be an exaggeration to say that the attitude to the ancient heritage, the level of its study and development is one of the indicators of the cultural development of a given country or society. In the nineteenth century a strong scientific school for the study of antiquity is taking shape in Russia. At the turn of the century, serious works appeared in this area, including textbooks for gymnasiums (E. F. Korsh, F. F. Zelinsky, S. Sobolevsky, and others). The traditions of this school were continued in the post-October period: textbooks on ancient Greek literature were published (by I. M. Troisky, I. I. Tolstoy, S. Radtsig, and others), academic three-volume history of ancient Greek literature and two-volume history of Roman literature; a large number of reference books and dictionaries on mythology and ancient art. The studies of modern connoisseurs of the ancient world S. S. Averintsev, M. L. Gasparov, V. N. Yarkho, M. E. Grabar-Passek, N. F. Deratani, A. A. Takho-Godi and others enjoy well-deserved recognition. Some of them acted both as researchers and as translators. The works of ancient Greek authors were published in such highly authoritative publications as the 200-volume "Library of World Literature", in the series: "Literary Monuments", "Library of Ancient Literature", "Ancient Dramaturgy", etc. The two-volume illustrated work "Myths of the Peoples of the World", including rich material on antiquity, was awarded the State Prize. The pride of not only domestic, but also world science is the works of A.F. Losev (1895-1988), a venerable philologist, philosopher, musicologist, specialist in logic and mathematics. Antiquity occupied a central place in his numerous studies. One of the main ones is the multi-volume "History of Ancient Aesthetics", about which academician D.S. Likhachev rightly noted that this is "a work that seemed to be only within the power of an academic institute to carry out." After the death of the scientist, scientific conferences are held in his honor - "Losev Readings". In Moscow, in the house on the Arbat, where A.F. Losev lived, a scientific center is being created - "Losev's House". His works are recognized abroad in Russia.

5. Geography and ethnography of the ancient world

Starting the study of ancient Greek literature, it is useful to imagine the natural conditions and landscapes of Hellas. This is significant, since the Hellenic fully and organically felt his dissolution in nature. And she, in turn, is present in the best creations of verbal art.

"THE DAUGHTER OF THE SEA AND EARTH".

The southern part of Greece was formed by the Peloponnese peninsula, a harsh land, an area overgrown with oak forests, with slopes descending to the sea. Central Greece was separated from the Peloponnese by the Gulf of Corinth. Two provinces stood out here: Attica and Boeotia, they later formed the basis of the Athenian state. Among the cities widely known were Athens and Eleusis. Northern Greece was a labyrinth of rocky, wooded mountain ranges. The passage through them was the Thermopylae Gorge, which also became famous as the site of the legendary feat of 300 Spartans who fell in the fight against the Persians. Here stood the highest mountain in Greece - Olympus, the abode of the gods. Thrace adjoined the northern coast of the Aegean Sea, and to the west of Thrace was mountainous, inaccessible Macedonia.

Life in Greece was determined by the proximity of the sea, the combination of land and water. Greece is surrounded by seas: its southern part is washed by the Mediterranean Sea, to the west of the peninsula - the Ionian Sea with a number of large islands, including Ithaca, on which the palace of Odysseus was located. The Black Sea was known to the Greeks for a very long time (it was called Pontus Euxinus). Bypassing the Propotinda (Sea of ​​Marmara), the Greeks entered the Black Sea and sailed to Colchis, the Crimea, and Scythia.

A remarkable role was played in the fate of Greek civilization by the Aegean Sea, which was, as it were, an inland sea, since Greek lands were located around it. He was sometimes called the "king of the sea." Many small islands were scattered in the Aegean Sea, which facilitated the tasks of young navigation. Among the islands there were several that left a noticeable mark on history: Paros, Keos, Delos. The islands formed, as it were, natural bridges between Europe and Asia.

The southern "bridge" was an elongated island of Crete, as if closing the Aegean Sea. It was rich in cypress forests (now almost extinct) and became the most powerful maritime state of Greece. Also known was the island of Rhodes off the coast of Asia Minor. There was a middle "bridge" of the islands that connected Attica with Asia Minor. Northern "bridge" - a series of islands that departed from Thessaly; among them are Chios, rich in wine and marble, as well as the famous island of Lesbos, where the poetess Sappho lived. The western coast of Asia Minor consisted of several provinces, such as Phrygia, Mysia, Lydia, Caria. There were several ports and cities located near the sea. Among them was the legendary city of Ilion (Troy), sung in the Homeric poem.

A pleasant picturesque landscape was combined with a subtropical climate. Summer is not hot due to the proximity of the sea. A mild winter lasts two to three months. The sea with numerous bays is convenient for fishing, the valleys for agriculture and viticulture; the abundance of minerals, ores, silver mines contributed to the development of crafts and metallurgical production. The famous Russian classical philologist F.F. Zelinsky wrote about this: “This was this cozy little world, this is the only complete and close combination of sea and land in Europe. European culture, created by the Greek people, is "the daughter of the sea and the earth."

ANCIENT POPULATION OF GREECE.

Information about the ancient population of Greece and adjacent lands is scarce. It is known about the tribes that lived for a long time in the south of the Balkan Peninsula, which were called Pelasgians. There were also Achaean tribes; in any case, under this name they act in Homer's Iliad. Ionians lived in Central Greece, Cretans lived in Crete. As a result of the movement of tribes in the 1st millennium BC. e. the end result was something like this. In the north of Greece and in the middle part, as well as on the islands of the Aegean Sea, the Aeolians settled; a little further south, the Ionians; in the Peloponnese, in Laconia, Messenia - the Achaeans; in other provinces of the peninsula, as well as on the islands of Rhodes and Crete - Dorians. Along with the process of displacement and movement of tribes, there was a gradual transition from primitive community-clan relations to a higher level of development of society. Ownership differences began to appear.

COLONIZATION.

Another important phenomenon in the most ancient period of history was colonization. The framework, the horizons of the Greek world were continuously expanding. The Greeks were excellent seafarers. They went to sea not only because of the passion for adventure, but also out of necessity. The lack of fertile soil in continental Greece caused a need for bread and some other products, prompting the Greeks to develop new lands.

Initially, the process covered the coast of the Aegean Sea. The shores of Asia Minor were especially actively colonized. There was colonization in the western direction, the Greeks landed in southern Italy, on the island of Sicily, as well as in the south of modern France, where the city of Massalia (now Marseille) was founded. The Greeks also penetrated into northern Africa, where they had dangerous competitors - the Phoenicians. There the Greeks laid the colony of Cyrene (on the territory of modern Libya). The ruins of the temple of Apollo and the theater have been preserved from it. An important direction of colonization was the northeast. Greek colonies appeared on the shores of the Hellespont (Dardanelles) and Propontis (Sea of ​​Marmara). The shopping center RiBiik stood out here. as well as the colony of Chalcedon. Somewhat later, a colony of Byzantium arose, founded in the 7th century. BC e., which became a transit point on the way to the Black Sea region. Later Byzantium was renamed Constantinople.

The Black Sea region was inhabited by warlike tribes, so colonization in this area slowed down somewhat. Nevertheless, from about the 7th century. BC e. Greek settlements and cities began to appear on the shores of the Black Sea. So the Black Sea region acquired its "Hellenic border".

One of the most significant Greek colonies was founded near the Dnieper-Bug estuary and was called Olbia. The city of Feodosia was founded in the Crimea, and on the site of modern Kerch, the city of Panticapaeum, which later became the capital of the Bosporus kingdom. On the Caucasian coast, the inhabitants of Miletus founded two colonies not far from the current Sukhumi and Poti: Dioskuriadu and Phasis. The Ionians founded colonies on the Taman Peninsula, the main of which was Phanagoria in the delta of the Kuban River. Near Sevastopol there was a colony of Khersones, and next to the present Rostov - Tanais. Excavations in Greek cities in the Black Sea region and the Crimea gave us many finds of material culture, which are kept in Russian museums.

The Greek settlers certainly had a cultural impact on the Scythians who roamed north of the Black Sea. Their familiarization with agriculture led to the fact that the Black Sea region became a kind of granary of rocky Greece, and bread became the main export item.

All this echoed in the myth of the goddess of agriculture, Demeter. She handed Triptolemus, the son of the Eleusinian king Keley, ears of wheat and sent him on a winged chariot to the northern Black Sea region, ordering him to give them to people and teach them how to farm. Demeter, through Triptolemus, blessed this hitherto wild land so that it would become fertile and grain-bearing for all time.

6. Sources of knowledge about antiquity

What are the sources of our knowledge about an era separated from us by millennia? What documents and evidence are at the disposal of modern science?

LITERARY MONUMENTS.

First of all, these are the works of ancient historians: Herodotus, Thucydides, Xenophon and others, as well as speakers, philosophers. These are also literary works, invaluable in terms of knowledge. The mere exhaustive enumeration of what was engraved on the shield of Achilles in the 18th song of the Iliad gives a fairly capacious impression of the everyday life of the Greeks of the Homeric era. The most important aspects of the life of the Greeks, their concepts, morality, family relations are revealed to us in the tragedies of Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides, and especially in the comedies of Aristophanes. The history of Greek literature is enriched from time to time with happy finds: previously unknown texts by the Greek comedian Menander ("The Gloomy"), the poets Archilochus, Callimachus have been discovered. Even myths and legends, for all their fantasticness, can enrich our information about the life, traditions and concepts of the ancient Hellenes. Unfortunately, the monuments of ancient literature, especially ancient Greek, are far from being completely preserved. So, out of approximately 90 tragedies of Aeschylus, only 7 are known to us. Only a small part of the poems of the wonderful Greek lyric poets Archilochus, Anacreon, Sappho and others have come down to us.

PAPYRUS AND PARCHMENT

Greek literature was written on papyrus. Wide sheets were made, which were rolled up into special scrolls. In the I-I centuries. BC e. papyrus began to be replaced by parchment, made from the skin of animals. Of course, over the centuries, many papyrus and parchment scrolls have perished. The texts that have come down to us are usually the result of repeated rewriting. It should be remembered that some works have disappeared because for a long time there was a selection of what was considered necessary for the school, for special study and memorization. Today we have at our disposal not only complete, complete works, but also numerous fragments, the so-called. fragments.

In the sands of Egypt, for example, pieces of papyrus with fragments of text are often found. But they are also of value to science and are being studied. Another source is various inscriptions in ancient Greek on buildings, tombstones, stones, and earthenware vessels. Useful information also contains ancient Greek coins, indicating the state of the economy. Some coins are engraved with portraits of Hellenic kings, as well as their names.

FINDINGS OF ARCHAEOLOGISTS.

But the richest and most valuable results come from archaeological expeditions. The most famous is the expedition of the German self-taught scientist Heinrich Schliemann (1822-1890), who, in search of Homeric Troy, excavated on the coast of Asia Minor, in essence, proving that the Iliad is based on historical events, artistically transformed. Schliemann provided the impetus for subsequent archaeological discoveries.

The discoveries made by the English archaeologist Arthur Evans (1851-1941) are priceless. Successful excavations, begun in 1900, made it possible to present the previously unknown world of material culture, to prove that about two or three thousand years ago, the Cretan-Mycenaean civilization flourished in the Aegean Sea.

Its center was on the island of Crete, which was actively trading with nearby islands. Precious metals were mined on it, there was a school of first-class craftsmen, creators of the famous Cretan gold and enamel products. Apparently, the wealth of the local nobility found an echo in the fabulous myth of Minos, who turned any object into gold with his touch. He was considered a powerful king of Crete and the surrounding islands.

KNOSSOS PALACE.

Evans discovered the oldest settlement, the ruins of a palace made of hewn stone. It was called the Palace of Knossos and is considered the main possession of Minos. As a result of lengthy archaeological work, it was possible to establish that this is an extensive palace complex, which was created during the XX-XV centuries. BC e. All this is described by A. Evans in the fundamental five-volume work "The Palace of Minos at Knossos" (1921-1936).

The palace consisted of several tiers, its area was up to 16,000 m2, it was distinguished by oriental splendor, had a rectangular shape, it had living rooms, halls for ceremonies, verandas, balconies, warehouses. Outwardly chaotic, in fact, it was built very economically, comfortably, adapted to the local climate; inside it, light traveled through stairwells and light shafts.

Colorful frescoes were also found, the creators of which demonstrate high artistic technique. The frescoes, executed by them in a realistic manner, made it possible to judge what the court and religious life of the island was like. Apparently, the nobility was concentrated around the palace, and the ruler also performed the functions of the high priest. In addition to the "elite", the king and courtiers, there was a social stratum of artisans - potters, sculptors, jewelers, masons.

At the turn of the III-II millennium BC. e. there is a flourishing of the culture of Crete. Several more palaces were built. Then the Cretan civilization perished; apparently, one of the reasons was a volcanic eruption, supplemented by an earthquake, which led to landslides on a number of islands, after which entire tracts of land were under water.

Perhaps this event served as the basis for the ancient myth of Atlantis, which was a huge island that sank to the bottom of the Atlantic Ocean. Evidence of this event is contained in two dialogues of the great Greek philosopher Plato: Timaeus and Critias. Until now, disputes about Atlantis have not subsided: different versions of its existence are being put forward. In 2000, not far from the coast of Egypt, at the bottom of the sea, the ruins of an ancient Greek city were discovered with preserved household items, amphorae, and statues.

MYKENES.

In Homer's poem "The Iliad" we find mention of Mycenae rich in gold. Today it is obvious that we are talking about another center of pre-Homeric culture that arose in the 2nd millennium BC. e. after the sunset of Crete. Mycenae, located on the Greek mainland in the northern part of the Peloponnese peninsula, was the center of the early slave state.

The first excavations in Mycenae were started by the already mentioned Heinrich Schliemann, who discovered shaft tombs carved into the rocks. Along with the remains of the dead, many valuable items were found there: vessels, jewelry, portrait gold masks, crowns, bronze swords inlaid with precious stones. One of the shaft tombs was named "Agamemnon's tomb". Schliemann and other scientists believe that it could belong to Agamemnon, the king of Argos, the commander-in-chief of the Greek troops who fought near Troy, that is, one of the main characters of Homer's Iliad.

There were also two palaces of impressive size in Mycenae. For a long time, scientists judged the Mycenaean culture only by examining palace ruins and household items. But after the Mycenaean script was unraveled in 1953, the content of the inscriptions on numerous clay tablets became clear.

Deciphering the script was no easy task. And here the unique experience of the English archaeologist Michael Ventris (1922-1956), who served as a cipher specialist during the Second World War, helped. Recognizing the secret of Mycenaean writing, he made a sensational discovery that enriched world science. He proved that the inscriptions at Mycenae, as well as at Pylos, were made in a special linear script. Although the tablets read by Ventris contained only lists of household items and were purely economic documents, they made it possible to understand the essential features of Mycenaean society. The state was ruled by the king, also a privileged elite rallied around him, while ordinary people, farmers, cattle breeders, artisans, served the palace economy. So the finds and efforts of archaeologists lifted the veil over “prehistoric Greece” for us.

In the era of the Greco-Mycenaean culture, other states also existed on the territory of Greece, which fought among themselves and carried out conquests. One of the military expeditions, as it has now become obvious, was the Trojan War described in the Iliad. In the XIII-XII centuries. BC e. the tribes of the Balkan Peninsula, in the process of moving south, swept away small slaveholding kingdoms. They also destroyed Mycenae. Some Greeks, fleeing from enemies, crossed the Aegean Sea, settled in Asia Minor. It was among these settlers that the myths about the Trojan War turned out to be tenacious.

For a long time the Greeks did not have a common literary language. They spoke and wrote in three dialects: Ionian, Dorian and Aeolian. The Athenians spoke the Attic dialect, which constituted, as it were, the core of the Ionian dialect. The historian Herodotus wrote in Ionian, and the poetess Sappho wrote in Aeolian. Pindar composed his odes and hymns in Dorian. However, they understood each other quite well. The literary language developed later in the Hellenistic era.

"CHILDHOOD OF HUMANITY".

Greek literature is inimitable and unique. Thinkers of different eras did not skimp on the most flattering epithets regarding her artistic contribution. “The world of antiquity is charming,” Belinsky admired. “In his life, the grain of everything great, noble, valiant, because the basis of his life is the pride of the individual, the inviolability of personal dignity.” Marx wrote that Greek art and the epic "continue to give us artistic pleasure and in a certain respect retain the significance of a norm and an unattainable model." In the creations of the Hellenes, we are struck by the depth, monumentality and at the same time naivety, immediacy, because the Greeks, according to the same Marx, were “normal children”, and their art reflected “the childhood of human society, where it developed most beautifully.”

7 Greek way of life

How did the ancient Hellenes live, who stood at the origins of European civilization, who created great artistic values? What was the Hellenic type purely outwardly? Here is one of the descriptions by R. H. Adamantius, a famous physician (5th century BC): addition; they are blond with white skin and with a steady, though delicate blush, they have straight, strong legs with graceful feet, a round, medium-sized head on a strong neck. ... Among all peoples, the Greeks stand out for the beauty of their eyes.”

ELLIN: CHARACTER AND MENTALITY

And what can be said about the distinctive features of the national character of the Hellenic, his mentality? The question is not simple.

Probably, a peculiar universalism, a generous variety of talents, should be considered a happy feature of the Hellenic national character. The Roman satirist Juvenal noted that the Greeks who flooded Rome showed obvious ability in various types of crafts. Aristotle owns this observation: those who live in a cold climate are distinguished by energy, but insufficient mental alertness; the inhabitants of Asia and hot countries, with intellectual liveliness, lack energy. The Greeks have a lively and active mind. These features largely explain the attractive, unfading features of Hellenic art: harmony, clarity. This is a consequence of the mental balance of their creators.

The mentality of the Hellenes is also inherent in the rejection of extremes, one-sidedness. "Nothing too much" is one of the essential postulates that determine his behavior. The Greeks combined fantasy with rationality, feeling with intelligence, and passion with cold calculation. Add to this curiosity, the desire to discover and know the unknown, which led to the success of the Hellenes in a variety of sciences and crafts. Intelligence, resourcefulness, the ability to adapt to unexpected situations, these historically formed traits of the Hellenic found their vivid embodiment in Homer's Odyssey, this truly Hellenic character. A.F. Losev sees in Odysseus an expression of the “Pontic spirit”: “Odysseus is precisely the bearer of the Pontic practical rationality, intelligent and far-sighted ability to navigate in difficult circumstances, tireless energy and organizational activity, the ability to speak fluently and convincingly, the finest diplomacy, cunning and political art.

Subtlety of mind is a noticeable feature of the Greeks.

We read from the historian Herodotus: "Since ancient times, the Hellenes have been distinguished from the barbarian by their quick wits and the absence of stupid gullibility." Cicero testifies to the wit inherent in the Hellenes and willingly quotes their well-aimed, subtle judgments. The French philosopher Auguste Renan emphasizes the bright attitude inherent in the Hellenes: the Greeks, like true children, as they really were, perceived life so joyfully that they never had the thought of sending curses to the gods, finding “nature unfair and insidious in relation to man."

The idea of ​​happiness by many Hellenes is instructive. Herodotus gives his conversation with the Lydian king Croesus. Herodotus explains to the powerful lord why he considers the Athenian Tellus "the happiest of people." First, Tell's home state was happy; he had wonderful children and lived to the time when all his children had grandchildren and grew up safely; secondly, he had sufficient means of subsistence, according to our concepts, and he ended his days with a glorious death during the battle of the Athenians with the Eleusinians; he helped his own to put the enemies to flight and died a courageous death; thirdly, the Athenians buried him at the public expense in the same place where he fell, and honored him with high honors. So, the main ethical values ​​of the Hellenic: civic virtues; love for one's state; deeds worthy of ancestors; healthy offspring.

UPBRINGING AND EDUCATION.

The universal giftedness of the Hellenes was not a gift from heaven. It was formed by the whole way of their life. Upbringing and education have always remained the subject of vigilant care. The prestige of spiritual and intellectual activity was unusually high. Talented people were surrounded by honor and attention.

A reasonable question arises: where did the Greeks get the time to do creative work? To participate in the work of the courts, visit the people's assembly? Of course, the bulk of thankless physical labor was performed by slaves. The free were mostly spared from it. However, they were also busy with business: crafts, trade, navigation, construction work and many others. But the working day was usually limited to six hours. The Greeks were quite modest, unpretentious in everyday life, in terms of clothing, food. The winged words of Pericles became a peculiar motto of the Hellenes: "We love beauty combined with cheapness." The life of the Hellenes was not like the splendor of the East. In the classical period, the life goal was not the accumulation of wealth, but the spiritual and physical improvement of the individual. This epigram reminded me of this:

Six hours for work are adapted; those behind them
With the symbol of their signs, they say to a mortal: "live."

What does it mean to live? First of all, communication with nature. With neighbor. There was another wise Greek proverb: "Man is God to man."

SPIRIT OF COMPETITION.

The development of abilities "programmed" in a person was also stimulated by the spirit of competition, which permeated all spheres of life of the Hellenes. In the Greek language there was a special concept: agon, i.e. struggle, competition. Sports, especially gymnastic competitions, as well as artistic (poetic and musical) and equestrian competitions dominated. The identification of the best, whether it was writing tragedies, playing the cithara, singing, philosophical discussion, oratory, beauty contests, etc., aroused the need for improvement, for honing skills.

FEATURES OF HOUSEHOLD WAY.

The ancient Greeks were considered sociable people, inclined to discuss the affairs of the state together. Often they united in circles, communities of interest. But their private life remained largely hidden from prying eyes. The house of the Greek with its windows, "face", turned to the inner courtyard; it was usually built of raw bricks, the floors were adobe or stone, sometimes marble, the roofs were tiled. The houses were, as a rule, two-storeyed, and in Athens for a long time they were both small and uncomfortable. Even famous military leaders owned modest dwellings. The poor, on the other hand, huddled in huts clinging to rocks and mountain ledges.

The house of a wealthy Greek was two-storied, and the total area was 250-300 m2. The courtyard occupied about 60-80 m2. The house was erected in such a way as to be maximally adapted to the local climate and lighting. The historian Xenophon set out such requirements for the house: it should be “pleasant for the owner”, “cool in summer, warm in winter”.

The first floor usually contained up to 10 rooms; they formed the male and female half. The main room of the house was called andron, the so-called. men's room. It was intended for men's meetings and feasts, that is, symposiums. Another important room was the room with the main hearth, where the family gathered for dinner. Some of the ground floor rooms were used as workshops for domestic work. The women's part of the house, called the gynecium, was on the second floor. Here the wife managed her maids, did housework.

There was no special heating in the houses. In winter, clay vessels or jugs were placed in the rooms, in which there was hot coal. The warmest and most comfortable place was considered the kitchen, where the household gathered. In addition, there was a special insulated room, similar to a home bath. Food was cooked in ceramic hearths, and bread was baked in special bell-like stoves installed directly on the coals. In a later, after the campaigns of Alexander the Great, the so-called. the Hellenistic period, the Greek aristocracy, imitating the eastern nobility, began to frankly gravitate towards luxury, to acquire villas with pools and fountains.

The houses had rather modest, numerous and comfortable furniture. The chairs were either stone or wooden, sometimes for a guest he was covered with a shaggy skin. Tables are round, square and oval, one and. sin legs, usually lower than modern ones. Clothes and utensils were hidden in large, lockable chests, chests, which also served as seating. The chests contained books and papyrus scrolls. Women's jewelry was crammed into elegant caskets, closed with a key-ring worn on the finger. Incense burners could also be seen in the rooms. The Athenians made sure that the rooms were not overloaded with unnecessary things, and the interior remained aesthetic and pleasing to the eye.

Among the specific items of household utensils, it is necessary to name a large earthen vessel for food supplies. Somewhat smaller was the pithos, where they kept wine, oil, figs, and pickles. An amphora was a vase with two handles and convex sides. A vessel for mixing wine with water during meals and libations was called a crater. Drinking pure wine was considered indecent, evidence of low culture. Archilochus, denouncing his enemy Lycambus, writes about him that he drank wine "unmixed."

Incense was poured into oblong-shaped vessels called lekythos. Finally, there were a considerable number of vases of various shapes, decorated with paintings. A whole area of ​​painting has been developed - vase painting.

The aesthetic perfection of Greek vases is still admired today. The great English romantic poet John Keats in his famous poem “Ode to a Greek Vase” admires the drawings imprinted on it. The vase itself is “a storyteller whose inventions are truer and more unsophisticated than any other fiction.” At the end of the poem, the Greek vase appears as the embodiment of classical beauty.

Say: the truth is beautiful and truthful
beautiful and that's enough!

Vessels of a special shape were used to store oils, perfumes, which were used to anoint the body. The women put cosmetic drugs into ceramic bottles.

In the later Hellenistic era, vessels made of bronze or silver were used as ceremonial utensils. Wooden utensils were not forgotten. But clay ceramics were the most common.

For the Greeks, moderate in food, the main products were bread, vegetables, olives, chestnuts, fish. Meat was eaten infrequently, usually received at public sacrifices. The poor ate barley, beans, cakes, salted fish. The food of the Spartans was coarser than that of the Athenians.

PIRs.

But gourmets diverted their souls at feasts, where the treat was both plentiful and exquisite. In "From Xenophanes of Colophon" A. S. Pushkin describes the feast as follows:

Clean glossy floor; glass bowls shine;
All the guests are already crowned; another smells, closing his eyes,
Incense sweet smoke; another opens an amphora,
The smell of cheerful wine spilling far away; vessels

Light cold water, golden loaves, amber
Honey and young cheese: - everything is ready; all decorated with flowers
The altar The choirs sing. But at the beginning of the meal, O others,
Should create a libation, broadcast noble speeches,
We must pray to the immortals, let them vouchsafe us with a pure soul
observe the truth; because it's easier. Now we'll get started...

The guests reclined on couches, to each of which they brought low tables with a variety of dishes. Food was taken by hand. Soups at feasts were not relied upon. Lunch usually began with dishes that stimulated the appetite. The feast was a kind of ritual: it was not only a gourmet treat, but a performance and entertainment. The main part of the feast, during which they drank wine, included music, playing flutes and citharas, dancing and drinking speeches. An indispensable element was the recitation of fragments from Homer's poems. Lyric poets were also read: Anacreon, Sappho. The head of the feast not only gave the floor to this or that speaker, but also established the proportion of wine dilution; water. Being intoxicated was considered bad manners. The Greeks believed that the first bowl bestows health, the second pleasure, the third sleep. After the third cup, it was necessary to go home.

After a joint meal, a feast or a drinking party was sometimes organized, which was called a symposia. Other symposiums turned into wild feasts. Philosopher Plato, observing the luxurious houses of the inhabitants of the city; Akraganta (Sicily), complained that the inhabitants build them as if they hope for eternal life, gluttony so ugly, as if it were their last meal.

The habitues of feasts were people whose duty it was to amuse society with coarse jokes; they were called parasites (para - y, sitos - bread). It was a certain social stratum, to which the playwright Eupolides dedicated the comedy "Flatterers". It shows how philosophers, artists, dramatic poets literally besiege the house of a certain rich man Callius. They fawn, compete before him in witticisms, praise him to the skies, in fact, forcing them to take them to full allowance, feed, clothe. We will meet something similar later in imperial Rome: crowds of half-starved clients, including impoverished philosophers, teachers, poets, will storm the houses of the rich, begging for handouts from them.

GREEK CLOTHES.

The clothes of the Greeks were quite simple and at the same time beautiful, economical. The main clothing for men was a tunic, a long sleeveless shirt; a himation, a wide oblong-shaped robe, was thrown over the top of the chiton. The most common footwear was sandals, attached to the foot with straps.

The Greek women's costume was also distinguished by its simplicity. Its main element was a tunic (chiton), which went down to the floor. The bodice and the skirt were one piece. The tunic was made with short sleeves, fastened with a buckle on the shoulder. It was a home suit made of woolen fabric. The woman's arms were bare. The shoes were distinguished by grace, were white or pink, decorated with a red or black border. Men wore shoes resembling boots or ankle boots. The women had sandals, shoes or high boots.

APPEARANCE.

The Greeks cared about the freshness of the face. The skin of men who spent a lot of time outdoors was usually tanned, while that of women, on the contrary, was pale. Men wore beards, which was considered a sign of masculinity. Shaving began only from the time of Alexander the Great. Men and women generally had a variety of hairstyles. Only athletes cut their hair short, while others had hair down to their shoulders. Long hair, sometimes tied at the back of the head or going down in the form of a ponytail, characterizes the Hellenes. A short haircut was worn by slaves, as well as free men during mourning or old age.

DECORATIONS.

Both men and women willingly used jewelry: among them rings, diadems, rings and bracelets The comedian Aristophanes mockingly speaks of dandies “in earrings”, with rings on their well-groomed fingers. Rings with seals were interesting - a symbol of the owner and mistress; often they had original images. Such a ring plays an important role in the plot in Menand's comedy Arbitration. Earrings, necklaces, wrists and buckles were popular women's jewelry. They were often left on dead women and men, as discovered during archaeological excavations.

FUNERAL RITE.

The Greeks had an established procedure for the funeral rite: the deceased was either interred or burned at the stake, after which the ashes were poured into an urn, which could be buried or placed in a tomb. The deceased was usually placed in a cypress coffin, since cypress was considered a tree of sorrow. In honor of the deceased, commendable speeches were made, but at the same time they tried to stick to the truth, because a lie was considered an unworthy deed. In Greece, people wore black or dark clothes during the period of mourning; only in Argos did they wear white. In Athens and Argos mourning lasted thirty days; in other policies - less; in Sparta - only twelve.

In general, the burial rite was carefully developed and was an essential element of the Greek way of life. The soul, which did not have a grave, according to the concepts of the Hellenes, became wandering. The writings of the ancients convince us that the Greeks feared death less than the deprivation of burial. He feared most of all that after his death the funeral rites would not be performed. The commander, who did not perform rituals for the dead sailors after the sea battle, was punished by death. Such a fate befell, for example, the son of the great Athenian statesman Pericles. And this happened even though the son returned to Athens with a victory.

Traditions and rituals played a huge role in the life of the Hellenes. This has been reflected in the literature.

SLAVERY.

Greece was the birthplace of democracy, democracy. But ancient democracy, for all its enormous conquests, was historically limited. Equality of rights and opportunities extended only to free citizens, and slaves were not included in this category. In the 5th century BC e., i.e., in particular, under Pericles, there were approximately 130 thousand citizens in Athens, but women and children were taken into account in this number. Thus, less than half enjoyed the right to vote.

Aristotle wrote: “Man cannot do without tools, even to obtain only what is necessary to sustain life. Among these tools, some are animate, others are inanimate ... A slave is an animate property and the most perfect of tools. A thinker like Aristotle considered slavery to be a natural phenomenon, corresponding to the very nature of man: some people are created in order to be slaves.

How did slavery originate? It did not exist at the early, archaic levels of Greek society. It was the result of violence. First of all - wars, when prisoners were turned into slavery. Thanks to the prisoners, it was possible to get rich. They were traded, ransoms were taken for them.

Along with wars, piracy was a source of acquiring slaves. Slave hunters who made expeditions to distant lands, to the Balkans, to Scythia, specialized in such a trade. In a number of Greek states, a person who did not pay a debt could fall into debt slavery. Finally, a slave was not allowed to have a family, a wife, he could cohabit with a woman, but at the same time, the children born became the property of his master. The slave did not have a name, but only a nickname, usually indicating the area where he came from.

Being the “talking thing” of the master, the slave did not have his own property. In most states of Greece, the master could punish his slave at his own discretion, even kill him, although this was unprofitable for him. A slave everywhere, with the exception of Athens, was not considered a person, had no legal status, no rights. And yet, in Athens, citizens treated them softer, more humane than in other states of Greece, where Sparta was famous for its particular ruthlessness. In it, free citizens, the Spartans, established a real regime of terror in relation to state slaves, helots.

The high level of civilization, education and culture in Athens affected the position of the slaves. The slave was, in a sense, a member of the Athenian family. He dressed like a free poor man. He could, along with free citizens, attend religious ceremonies and festivities. He was allowed to talk at home with his master and at the same time behave with dignity, express the hard-hitting truth. If in other Greek cities a slave was allowed to be beaten and insulted even in the street, then nothing like this was allowed in Athens. Albeit to the smallest extent, but the slaves were legally protected. In addition, the Athenian law gave the slave certain guarantees: the owner had to be responsible for the cruel treatment of the slave, and even more so for the murder. If the owner was excessively cruel in his disciplinary measures, the slave could demand that he be sold to another owner, transferred to softer hands.

LABOR OF SLAVES.

There is a popular opinion: all production in Athens was based on the exploitation of slaves, and the citizens were engaged in politics, devoted themselves to the fine arts, being freed from material concerns. However, this is not quite true. Free citizens were included in production, worked as farmers, vine-growers, fishermen, sailors. Slaves participated in the same labor processes, but were a step below their masters. Those areas where purely physical efforts were required fell to their lot.

It was not uncommon for slaves to achieve a fairly privileged status in their master's household. This applies primarily to the "nurse" and "teacher". Participating in education, they often became attached to their children. A similar motif is present in some Greek plays by Euripides and Menander, where images of domestic slaves appear (“nurse”, “uncle”). In the tragedy of Euripides "Hippolytus" the nurse acts as a kind of Phaedra's confidante.

Usually the poor did not have slaves. An ordinary citizen had one slave and two maids. Slaves were used in agriculture, but to a small extent; the Athenian peasant was the owner of a small plot of land and could cultivate it himself or with the help of relatives. Slaves were much more involved in handicraft production: they were engaged in tailoring, pottery and leatherwork, the manufacture of musical instruments, home furniture, utensils and, of course, weapons. During the construction of temples, palaces, and other large aesthetically perfect structures in Athens, both free and slaves worked side by side, to whom the state paid a salary. However, the slave owner, who was responsible only for the food of the slave, put it in his pocket. Slave labor was indispensable in the extraction of minerals, which Greece is rich in.

THE THEME OF SLAVERY IN LITERATURE.

Although the great Greek writers and philosophers considered slavery to be natural, they often expressed their sympathy for slaves. Homer's Odyssey contains the following lines:

The painful lot of sad slavery having chosen a man,
Zeus destroys the best of the virtues in him.

A slave, indignant at a humiliated share, could express his protest by spoiling the tools of labor. Therefore, slave owners tried to make them rude, clumsy. As Greek society developed, it became obvious that slavery was a disease that gradually weakened it from within. The slaves were not interested in the fruits of their activities, their work was not only exhausting, but also ineffective, devoid of initiative.

It is significant that in Greek drama, especially in comedy, as it develops, slaves play an increasing role. This is especially true of Aristophanes, such of his plays as "The Wasps", "The World", "The Frogs". In The Frogs, the slave Xanthius, witty, resourceful, even demonstrates superiority over his master. In Plutos, the slave Karion laments the bitter lot of the slave:

Oh Zeus, oh gods! What is the punishment
Belong to a mad owner!
Let the slave give excellent advice,
Yes, the master does not want to listen to them,
Be patient servant for this trouble!

Karion is drawn into the madness of his master and tries to help him in every possible way. In so-called. Neo-Attic comedy by Menander, where family and everyday themes prevail, slaves are indispensable participants in love affairs

EDUCATION OF A CITIZEN.

As already emphasized, upbringing and education meant for s/lins, perhaps, more than material values. Upbringing and education were included in the "zone of responsibility" of the state. A slave was considered unhappy not because he often performed hard physical work, but because he could not join knowledge along with the free one.

The main pedagogical goal was to educate a worthy member of society, a citizen in the broadest, fullest sense of this concept. It meant achieving fame. To be worthy of the ancestors, their good name. Or maybe surpass the virtues of parents. Hector, the hero of the Iliad, seeing his little son, says: “Let them once say about him, seeing him coming from the battle: he surpasses his father!” In the poems of Homer, and they were, to a certain extent, textbooks of life, the idea of ​​the moral education of the Hellenes is emphasized. The poet names such his most attractive qualities: "glorious in descendants", "faithful", "reliable", "acting as it should be according to custom."

The birth of a child was considered a moment of solemn and joyful, although not always. The first question was whether the father wanted to keep the child or wanted to get rid of him. There was a custom: the midwife lowered the newborn to the ground so that the father could do what he wanted: raise him or, on the contrary, leave him on the floor. In Sparta, the newborn was brought to a public house, where he was examined by the elders of the family. If the baby was considered strong and healthy, then they were raised as a Spartan: if they considered him weak, they threw him into a mountain gorge on Mount Taygetus or doomed him to starvation, left him to be eaten by wild animals. Even the great Plato and Aristotle, having outlined the scheme of a just state, were inclined to believe that it was pointless to raise an ugly child.

It happened that they threw up healthy children. This happened to the poor, who feared that they would not be able to give them a proper education, and therefore, like slaves, the child would be deprived of the blessings of life. The fate of girls was especially unenviable: in some wealthy, but large families, they did not want to share inheritances. It was believed that the boy, having matured, would be able to feed himself and provide for himself, but the poor girl would not marry if she did not have a good dowry. Cases of abandoned children, including those born out of wedlock, were not uncommon in Greece. The plot with the abandoned child is the basis of Menander's famous play "The Court of Arbitration". Oedipus, the hero of the dramatic trilogy of Sophocles, was also abandoned by his parents.

In wealthy families, the mother left the breastfeeding of the baby to the wet nurse, in order to remain free and unbound herself. The nurse could be either a slave or a poor citizen. From an early age, children in wealthy families grew up surrounded by slaves and slaves, who were looked upon as their own property.

In Politics, Aristotle wrote: "Children should not be idle." Permanent employment is essential. Otherwise, the child begins to break and beat everything that comes to hand.

MORAL EDUCATION.

In the beginning, education was not compulsory, but was seen as a duty of parents towards their offspring. But already in the V century. BC e., in the era of the Peloponnesian War, the Athenians were proud that among the free they did not have illiterates. From the age of 7, schooling began in Athens. Both unreasonable children and adults are obliged to follow the highest law called morality.

What did the Greeks understand by morality? They saw in her health and fortitude, a sober worldview that protects a person from evil and debauchery, a sense of shame inherent in every decent person. Morality was the quintessence of all virtues. Its bearer enjoys the favor of the gods and the respect of fellow citizens. Morality is the priority goal of education, in which coercion and fear can take place if they are able to direct a person in the right way and contribute to the correction of his nature. With the necessary severity, the Hellenes followed the behavior of the boys, not excluding physical punishment up to the rod. The Greek comedian Menander wrote: "He who is not beaten is not brought up."

EDUCATION.

In Sparta, the upbringing was entirely taken over by the state. In Athens, the child, as soon as he left the nursery, came under the supervision of a teacher (literally, this word means "schoolmaster"). The child was charged with obeying the teacher, even if he was a slave. The teacher was first and foremost an educator, not a teacher. From the age of 7, the boy was already under the care of his father, who, together with teachers, prepared him for practical life. At an early stage, there were no schools in Athens. But the learning was collective. Children united in groups under the guidance of a teacher, which was, as it were, a prototype of school classes. The Greeks proceeded from the principle of the unity of the mental and physical development of the individual, reasonably believing that in a person both the soul, the body and the intellect should be beautiful.

EDUCATION OF GIRLS.

The upbringing of girls had a special character. Before marriage, which the Athenian girl entered at about 15 years old, she stayed in the depths of the female part of the house, called the gynaecium. The girls were brought up by their mother: they were taught to run a household and even mastered the elementary skills of treating their neighbors. Their upbringing was built in such a way as to limit contacts with the outside world as much as possible. It was believed that in this way the most valued qualities would be formed in girls: modesty, good manners and tenderness. Being under the careful supervision of mothers and nurses, they were accustomed to needlework, to work with wool and fabric. The love of art, which distinguished the Hellenes, also penetrated the boundaries of the gynaecium. Girls were introduced to writing, reading and music. In rare cases, a young girl left her shelter, could appear at some religious ceremonies. Religion had a huge influence on her mentality.

Summing up, the French historian of ancient culture P. Guiraud testifies: “If we, when studying the activities of a Greek girl and the rare entertainments that interrupted them, discard the details, we will get a solid impression - the impression of something modest and restrained: it was life, monotonous and peaceful , dependent, but not humiliating; the ignorance of the girl was carefully maintained, but not to lower the mental level of the woman, but to preserve in all inviolability the subtlety of her soul and that flower of chastity, which had not yet withered under the influence of knowledge of evil or suspicion of its existence.

AT A GREEK SCHOOL.

There were 3 groups of subjects in the Greek school: verbal sciences, music and gymnastics. Classes for the first two began at the age of 7; the teenager joined gymnastics from the age of 14. In the process of learning to write, he memorized works full of moralizing advice, examples from the life of great people, stories about someone's generous deeds. Thus, not so much literary as moral education was carried out. Later, the study of passages from Homer, tragic and lyric poets began. Musical training included playing two well-known instruments - the zither or lyre and the flute. A gymnastics teacher, called a pedotrib, taught wrestling, running, jumping, throwing a discus and a dart. Gymnastics focused not only on sports, first of all, military service was meant.

Around the 4th century BC e. military training of young men acquired orderliness and purposefulness. The ephebia instigut was introduced. Ephebe was considered a young man who had reached the age of 18. Ephebes were included in the state lists and were obliged to serve the state for two to four years, being in garrisons and guard posts. After a year of service, the ephebes took an oath of allegiance to the Athenian state. In particular, it said: “I swear never to dishonor this sacred weapon, never leave my place in battle, whether alone, with all together, I will fight for my hearth. I will leave behind my fatherland not reduced, but more powerful and stronger."

HIGHER EDUCATION.

There was also such a form of education, which could be conditionally called higher education. The wealthiest and most intelligent Athenian young people were attached to it. They listened to lectures from outstanding scientists on subjects that went beyond the scope of the school curriculum: geometry, astronomy, geography, but especially rhetoric and philosophy. Often the words of such teachers evoked a lively response in the hearts of young people. Plato testifies: “A young man who has tasted from this source for the first time receives such pleasure, as if he had found a treasure of wisdom. He is full of pleasure." All this is evidence of that cult of knowledge, that respect for talents that characterize life in Athens. Recall that all the Athenians, rich and poor, defended their homeland on the battlefield. If the Athenian was taken prisoner, he often found himself alive: he was saved thanks to his knowledge and skills - he was used as a home teacher.

8. Periodization of Greek literature

The history of ancient Greek literature is organically connected with the life of Hellas, its culture, religion, traditions, it reflects in its own way changes in the socio-economic and political fields. Modern science distinguishes four periods in the history of ancient Greek literature.

1. Archaic, which covers the time before the beginning of the 5th century. BC e. This is the era of "early Greece", when there is a slow decomposition of the patriarchal-tribal system and the transition to a slave-owning state. The subject of our attention is the preserved monuments of folklore, mythology, the famous poems of Homer "Iliad" and "Odyssey", the didactic epic of Hesiod, as well as lyrics, a constellation of poets who worked in the 7th-6th centuries. BC e.

2. Attic (or classical) covers the 5th-4th centuries. BC e., when the Greek policies and, first of all, Athens, this is the “eye of Hellas”, are flourishing, and then a crisis, they lose their independence, being under the rule of Macedonia. This is a time of remarkable take-off in all artistic fields. This is, first of all, the Greek theater, the dramaturgy of Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides, Aristophanes; Attic prose: historiography (Herodotus, Thucydides), oratory (Lysius, Demosthenes), philosophy (Plato, Aristotle).

3. Hellenistic covers the time from the end of the 4th century. BC e. until the end of the 1st c. n. e. The subject of attention is Alexandrian poetry and Neo-Attic comedy (Menander).

4. Roman, that is, the time when Greece becomes a province of the Roman Empire. Main themes: the Greek novel, the work of Plutarch and Lucian.

9. Interdisciplinary connections.

The "Introduction" section is closely related to such sections and topics as "Literature and Life", "Science and Art, Their Commonality and Differences", "The Concept of the Literary Process", "Literary Connections" (in the course "Theory of Literature"); “The Significance of Writing in the History of the Development of Society and Language”, “The Origin of the Greek Alphabet” (in the course “Theory of Language”); "Types and forms of government", "Democracy" (in the course "Political Science"); "Upbringing and Education in the Ancient World" (in the courses "Philosophy of Education", "History of Pedagogy"); corresponding sections in the courses: "Ethnology", and "Sociology". Additional material for section 4. "Antiquity and Russian culture" is contained in the courses "History of Russia" and the corresponding chapters of courses on the history of Russian literature.

10. Literature

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Greece is a state in the south of Europe, on the Balkan Peninsula, bordering on Albania, Macedonia, Bulgaria, Turkey. Greece is washed by the Aegean and Ionian Seas. Greece consists of approximately 2 thousand islands, which account for almost 20% of the entire country. Mountains occupy almost a quarter of the country's surface. The highest point in Greece is Mount Olympus, 2917 meters high. The country is dominated by rivers flowing from the mountains, short, stormy, with picturesque rapids and waterfalls, often carrying their waters to the sea in narrow canyons. The longest river in Greece is Alyakmon, almost 300 km long. There are over 20 lakes in Greece.

Greece is a parliamentary republic. The head of state is the President. The head of government is the Prime Minister.

Official language: Greek. In addition to it, English, German, Italian, French are often used.

Orthodox make up -97.6% of the population, Muslims -1.3%, Catholics -0.4%, other religions are also represented.

The emergence of the first settlements on the coast of the Aegean dates back to the Neolithic era. Already in the III millennium BC, state formations of the early feudal type appeared on the island of Crete. Later, cultural centers arose in the south of the Balkan Peninsula, the islands of the Aegean Sea, the coast of Thrace, and the western coast of Asia Minor. Ancient Greece (Hellas) is the common name of the ancient Greek states. The centuries-old history tells about their formation, development, flourishing, wars, victories and defeats. In the 2nd century BC, Greece became a Roman province; in the 4th-15th centuries AD, Greece became part of the state formed during the collapse of the Roman Empire - Byzantium. The capital of Byzantium was Constantinople. Since the 15th century, Greece has been under Turkish rule. During the Greek National Liberation Revolution (1821–1829), Greece was proclaimed independent. After the defeat of Turkey in the war with Russia, according to the Andriapol peace treaty, the autonomy of the country was recognized. Since 1830, Greece has become an independent state.

Until 1973, Greece was a constitutional monarchy, the official head of state was King Constantine II, who ascended the throne in 1964 after the death of King Paul I. In April 1967, the junta of "black colonels" led by Georgios Popadopoulos carried out a coup d'état and established a military dictatorship . In 1973, the decision of the government to overthrow Constantine II was announced, Greece became a presidential republic. After the fall of the reactionary regime, in July 1974, a civilian government headed by Konstantinos Karamanlis came to power. Since November 17, 1974, Greece has been a parliamentary republic with a presidential form of government.
Popular attractions.

The famous Athenian Acropolis- a visiting card of the Greek capital, as well as an important historical, archaeological and architectural monument. The Acropolis is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The word "acropolis" from ancient Greek is translated as "upper city" or "fortress". Often, acropolises were built on an inaccessible hill and were well fortified. The Acropolises were an excellent refuge in case of hostilities. The famous Athenian Acropolis is an ancient fortress located on top of a rocky 156-meter hill towering over Athens with many beautiful ancient temples and other structures. During archaeological excavations, it was found that the hill was already inhabited in the 4th millennium BC. In 480 B.C. During the Greco-Persian War, the Acropolis was seriously destroyed by the Persians. New large construction on the Acropolis began in 447 BC. initiated by Pericles. Most of the buildings from this period have survived to this day.

Among the most interesting structures of the Acropolis, the monumental Propylaea deserve special attention - marble covered gates with five passages in the central part and portico wings adjoining them on both sides, one of which once housed the Pinakothek. The propylaea are made of white Pentelian marble interspersed with darker Eleusinian. To the right of the Propylaea, on a steep ledge lined with marble, is the Temple of Nike Apteros.

Of interest is the legendary Parthenon - the main temple of Ancient Athens and a magnificent monument of ancient architecture, erected in honor of the patroness of Athens and all of Attica - the goddess Athena. For the construction of the temple, white Pentelian marble was used. The famous ancient Greek sculptor Phidias was engaged in the artistic design of the building.

Of no less interest is the Erechtheion, which has no analogues in ancient Greek architecture. Due to the combination of several sanctuaries in it (the eastern part of the temple is dedicated to the goddess Athena, and the western part to Poseidon and King Erechtheus), it has an original asymmetrical layout. On the south side, the temple is adjoined by the portico Pandroseion, the architrave of which is supported by six marble statues of caryotid girls.

On the southeastern and southern slopes of the Acropolis, you can see two ancient theaters - the theater of Dionysus and the Odeon of Herodes Atticus. The latter is used for its intended purpose and today, it is the main stage of the annual Athens festival.

Of course, it is worth visiting the New Acropolis Museum, located at the foot of the hill, which opened in June 2009. The fantastic collection of ancient artifacts and various architectural fragments collected during the archaeological excavations of the Acropolis of Athens is considered one of the best such collections in the world.

Arch of Hadrian- a monumental gate, somewhat reminiscent of the Arc de Triomphe in Rome. This building is located in the city of Athens on Amalis Avenue. The arch was built in 131 AD. in honor of the Roman emperor Hadrian on the ancient road leading from the center of Athens, its oldest district of Plaka, to the complex of buildings in the eastern part of the city, among which the Temple of Olympian Zeus (Olympeion) can be noted. On the wall in the center above the ceiling, two inscriptions are carved on both sides, calling Theseus Hadrian the founders of Athens. From the side of the acropolis is written "This is Athens, the ancient city of Theseus." From the side of Olympeion, the inscription reads that "This is the city of Hadrian, not Theseus." Researchers suggest that the arch divided the city into an old and a new part. There is also a second version: the inscription from the side of the new city testifies to the special role of the Roman emperor in the life and development of Athens. The new part of the city began to be called Adrianapolis.

The arch is 18 m high, 13.5 m wide and 2.3 m deep. It was built of white Pentelikon marble, which was used in the construction of many Athenian buildings. The arch was carved from solid marble, without the use of cement and other building mixtures. Separate parts of the structure were fastened with special brackets of a special design. The arch is completely symmetrical. In 2006-2008, this monument of ancient architecture was reconstructed.

ancient agora. In the heart of Athens, northwest of the Acropolis, are the ruins of the Ancient Agora. During the period of ancient Greece, from the beginning of the 6th century BC, it was the political, financial, administrative, cultural and religious center of the city, second only to the Acropolis in its importance. Here justice was administered, trade deals were concluded, athletic and theatrical competitions were held. It was through the Ancient Agora that the famous Panathenaic Way leading to the Acropolis ran, along which solemn processions marched during the Panathenaic religious and political festivities in honor of the patroness of the city, the goddess Athena. Today, the Ancient Agora is one of the most interesting sights of the capital, as well as an important archaeological and historical monument. The first excavations of the Ancient Agora were carried out in the second half of the 19th century by the Greek Archaeological Society and the German Archaeological Institute. Systematic work began in the 20th century by the American School of Classical Studies in Athens. The results of the excavations were impressive, so at the state level they decided to demolish a huge number of modern buildings in order to be able to establish the boundaries of the Ancient Agora. The huge work carried out by archaeologists made it possible to determine the location and purpose of a large number of various structures, both public administrative and religious - the temples of Hephaestus, Apollo and Aphrodite, the standing of Zeus, the Royal standing, the so-called Tholos (the seat of the government of Ancient Athens), the mint , the altar of the Twelve Gods, the Metroon, the Odeon of Agrippa and much more. Today, on the eastern outskirts of the Agora, stands the impressive Stoa of Attala, erected in the middle of the 20th century. The gallery is not only of architectural interest, but is also home to the Agora Museum. The exposition of the museum has unique ancient artifacts found during the excavations of the Agora and its environs, which perfectly illustrate the history of the ancient city. The earliest exhibits date back to the 4th millennium BC.

Monasteries of Meteora. A few kilometers from the city of Kalambaka are the famous Meteora - one of the largest and most revered monastic complexes in Greece. The monasteries are picturesquely located on the peaks of the incredibly beautiful huge steep cliffs towering on the northwestern outskirts of the Thessalian plain. These rocks themselves are a rare geological phenomenon and were formed about 60 million years ago. It is thanks to their unique location that the monasteries got their name, since in Greek the word “meteors” literally translates as “soaring in the air”.

Researchers believe that the first skete of the Holy Spirit was founded here in the middle of the 10th century by a certain Barnabas. Although it is likely that these hard-to-reach rocks were chosen by hermits much earlier. For a long time, settlers settled in caves and rocky depressions, climbing to the tops of stone massifs with the help of rearranged wooden scaffolds, which were later replaced by hanging ladders and a winch with a net. In 1160, the skete of Staghi (Dupiani) was built, which became the "progenitor" of the monastic community.

In 1334, together with like-minded people, the Monk Athanasios of Meteor arrived on the Thessalian lands, having left Mount Athos due to the invasion of corsairs. It was Athanasius who gave these rocks the name "Meteora". He also founded the Transfiguration Monastery, or the Great Meteor, the largest of the Meteors, located on the highest and impregnable rock, at an altitude of 613 meters. It is from this moment that the true flowering of Meteors begins. By the 16th century, the unique location, which made it possible to protect the monasteries as much as possible from the invasions of robbers and robbers, as well as the strict observance of the laws and rules laid down by St. Athanasius, made it possible to create a prosperous monastic community with many monasteries. Today, 24 monasteries are known.

To this day, only six monasteries have survived and are operating:

Transfiguration Monastery (Great Meteor),

Monastery of Varlaam

Monastery of the Holy Trinity

Rusanu Monastery (Saint Barbara),

Monastery of Saint Stephen

Monastery of St. Nicholas Anapavsas.

In addition to fantastic landscapes and a stunning atmosphere of calm and tranquility, these shrines are interesting for their architecture, an abundance of beautiful old frescoes, icons, and other church relics.

In 1988, the Meteora monasteries were included in the UNESCO World Heritage List. In 1922, steps were carved into the rocks, which greatly facilitated access to the monasteries.

Parthenon. On the famous Athenian Acropolis, the ancient Greek temple of the Parthenon is located. This main temple in Ancient Athens is a wonderful monument of ancient architecture. It was built in honor of the patroness of Athens and all of Attica - the goddess Athena. The date of the start of the construction of the Parthenon is considered to be 447 BC, it was established thanks to the found fragments of marble tablets, on which the city authorities presented financial reports. Construction lasted 10 years. The temple was consecrated in 438 BC. at the Panathenaic festival, the decoration and decoration of the temple was carried out until 431 BC. The initiator of the construction of the temple was Pericles, an Athenian statesman, famous commander and reformer. The design and construction of the Parthenon was carried out by the famous ancient Greek architects Iktin and Kallikrates. The decoration of the temple was made by the greatest sculptor of those times - Phidias. Pentelian marble of very high quality was used for the construction. The building was built in the form of a periptera - a rectangular structure surrounded by columns. The total number of columns is 50, 8 columns on the facades and 17 columns on the sides of the building. The ancient Greeks took into account that straight lines are distorted at a distance, so they resorted to some optical techniques. For example, the columns do not have the same diameter along the entire length, they taper towards the top, and the corner columns are also inclined towards the center. Thanks to all this, the building seems perfect. Previously, in the center of the temple stood a statue of Athena Parthenos. The monument was 12 meters high and made of gold and ivory on a wooden base. In one hand, the goddess held a statue of Nike, and with the other she leaned on a shield, near which the serpent Erichthonius curled up. On the head of Athena was a helmet with three crests (the middle one with the image of a sphinx, the side ones with griffins). The scene of Pandora's birth was carved on the pedestal. Unfortunately, the statue has not survived to our time and is known from descriptions, images on coins and a few copies. For many centuries, the temple was attacked more than once, part of the temple was destroyed, and historical relics were looted. Today, some parts of the masterpieces of ancient sculptural art can be seen in the famous museums of the world. The main part of the magnificent works of Phidias was destroyed by people and time.

Currently, restoration work is underway, the reconstruction plans include the maximum reconstruction of the temple in its original form in ancient times. The Parthenon as part of the Acropolis of Athens is included in the UNESCO World Heritage List.

Propylaea of ​​the Acropolis of Athens- Another monument of ancient Greek architecture. The word "propylaea" comes from the prefix "pro" (from Latin to or before) and "pylaea" (from the Greek gate), which literally translates - "before the gate", although in fact it is just a gate - an entrance, a passage. Usually, "propyleas" are front gates formed by porticoes and colonnades. Such structures are characteristic of ancient Greek architecture. The Propylaea were built on the site of an old gate that was destroyed by the Persians. The building was designed by the ancient Greek architect Mnesicles. Construction continued from 437 BC. to 432 BC The monumental gates were made of white Pentelian marble, interspersed with darker Eleusinian marble, perhaps to create a contrast. The building consists of a central part and two adjoining wings, one of which housed the Pinakothek art gallery. The facade of the central part is made up of six Doric columns, which in their proportions are similar to the columns of the Parthenon. These columns divide the central part into five openings. The middle opening is the widest, it was intended for solemn processions. Once it was closed with bronze gates. In Christian times, both wings were converted into churches. In the 13th-14th centuries, the residence of the Athenian Duke De la Roche was located in the Propylaea. During the Ottoman period, there was the headquarters of the Turkish garrison and an ammunition depot, which in 1656 led to the explosion and destruction of the Propylaea. After the end of the War of Independence, all medieval and Turkish buildings were demolished and archaeological excavations began. In 1975, during the reconstruction of the Acropolis, restoration work was partially carried out on the Propylaea. The global seven-year renovation project of the Acropolis of Athens was completed in 2009. The Propylaea of ​​the Acropolis of Athens is included in the UNESCO World Heritage List.

Ancient Greek Temple of Nike Apteros located in the Athenian Acropolis. It is also called the Temple of Athena Nike. Translated from the Greek "Nika" - "victory", and Athena - the goddess of victory in war and wisdom. The temple is the very first Ionic temple in the Acropolis and is located on a steep hill to the right of the Propylaea. Here, the locals worshiped the goddess in the hope of winning a long war with the Spartans and their allies (the Peloponnesian War). Unlike the Acropolis, where the sanctuary could only be reached through the Propylaea, Nike's sanctuary was always open. The temple was built between 427 and 424 BC. by the famous ancient Greek architect Callicrates, on the site of an older temple of Athena, which was destroyed by the Persians in 480 BC. The building is an amphiprostyle - a type of ancient Greek temple, on the front and rear facades of which there are four columns in one row. The stylobate of the temple has three steps. The friezes are decorated with sculptural reliefs depicting the gods: Athena, Zeus, Poseidon and scenes of military battles. The surviving fragments of sculptural friezes are presented in the Acropolis Museum and the British Museum, while copies are fixed on the temple. Like most of the buildings of the Acropolis, the Temple of Nike Apteros is built of Pentelikon marble. Already after the completion of construction work, around 410 BC, the temple was surrounded by a parapet to protect people from falling off the cliff. On the outside, it was decorated with bas-reliefs depicting Nike. Inside the temple was a statue of the goddess Nike. In one hand the statue had a helmet - a symbol of war, in the other - a pomegranate - a symbol of fertility. Usually the Greeks depicted a goddess with wings, but this statue did not have wings. This was done on purpose so that victory would not leave the city. This is where the name of the Temple of Nike Apteros comes from - a wingless victory.

Erechtheion. On the northern side of the Acropolis, next to the Parthenon, is the ancient Greek temple of the Erechtheion. This architectural and historical monument is considered to be the pearl of ancient Greek architecture and one of the main temples of ancient Athens. It was built in 421-406 BC. and is dedicated to a whole galaxy of gods. According to legend, the temple was built on the site of a dispute between Athena and Poseidon for power over Attica. The Erechtheion replaced an older temple that was located on this site, but was destroyed during the Greco-Persian War. The construction was started by Pericles, but it was completed after his death. Perhaps the architect was the architect Mnesicles. The Erechtheion has no analogues in ancient Greek architecture. It is made in the Ionic style and has an asymmetric layout, not only because of the unevenness of the surface of the earth on which it is built, but also because of the variety of sanctuaries connected in it. The temple had two main entrances - from the north and east, they were decorated with porticos. The eastern part of the Erechtheion was dedicated to the goddess Athena, and the western part to Poseidon and King Erechtheus. On the south side of the temple is the famous portico Pandroseion, named after the daughter of King Kekrop Pandrosa. The architrave is supported by six marble statues of caryatid girls. This is the main attraction of the Erechtheion. Today, all of them have been replaced by copies, while the originals are in museums. One of the caryatids is kept in the British Museum, the rest are in the Acropolis Museum. The whole building was surrounded by a frieze with overlaid figures, but it has not survived to this day. The wreckage is kept in the Acropolis Museum. In ancient times, there was a salty spring in the temple, which, according to legend, Poseidon carved out of the rock with his trident, and in the open courtyard of the temple, a sacred olive tree, a gift from Athena, grew. Once in the temple there was a wooden statue of Athena, which allegedly fell from the sky. The statue was made from the sacred olive tree. The Erechtheion also contained a golden lamp by Callimachus and a statue of Hermes. It also housed the altars of the god of crafts Hephaestus and the hero Booth. The temple got its name in honor of the Athenian king Erechtheus, whose grave was located under the northern portico. And at the western facade of the temple, you can still see the grave of the first king of Attica, Kekrop. The temple underwent major changes in the 7th century AD, when it was converted into a Christian church. During the Ottoman Empire, the temple was used as the harem of the Turkish Sultan. The first real restoration of the temple was carried out after Greece gained independence. Today, the Erechtheion is included in the UNESCO World Heritage List as part of the Acropolis of Athens.

Popular cities and resorts.

Attica The region of Greece where Athens is located. Attica is located in the southeast of the country, and in the south it is washed by the waters of the Saronic Gulf. The climate in Atika is Mediterranean, healing the body due to its dryness. Plantations of vineyards, fruit and olive trees grow everywhere here. Holidays in Attica are a great opportunity to combine acquaintance with Athenian antiquities and relaxation at sea. On the coast of Attica, there are a large number of public and private beaches, and excellent resort hotels have been built.

Athens- the capital of Greece and one of the most ancient cities in Europe. The city is located in the southern part of the Attica peninsula, in a valley surrounded from the west, east and north by small mountains. From the south, the city is washed by the waters of the Saronic Gulf.

Athens got its name in honor of Athena, the goddess of wisdom in Greek mythology. The history of the city goes back several thousand years. After the golden age of Socrates, Plato and Aristotle, the city experienced a decline in the Middle Ages. The second birth of the city of Athens experienced in 1834 as the capital of independent Greece. It was in Athens, in 1896, that the first Olympiad of the "new" time was held.

Now Athens is a large metropolis with a population of 4.5 million people. Athens is a huge open-air museum of ancient architecture and simply an amazingly beautiful and hospitable city.

The center of Athens is divided into a number of distinct areas. Behind, behind the Acropolis, which is the core of the ancient city, lies Plaka, the oldest residential area of ​​Athens. Here you can find monuments of the ancient, Byzantine or Turkish period - such as the octagonal Tower of the Winds, the tiny Byzantine church - the Small Metropolis or the elegant stone door of the Turkish religious school - the madrasah, the building itself has not been preserved. Most of the old houses in Plaka have now been converted into tourist shops, cafes, night bars and restaurants.

Descending from the Acropolis to the northwest, you come to the Monastiraki area, where craftsmen's shops have been located since medieval times.

Going further along University Street in a southeast direction, you can go to the center of the modern city. Passing the richly decorated buildings of the National Library, the University and the Academy, you can get to Syntagma (Constitution) Square - the administrative and tourist center of Athens. On the square there is a beautiful building of the Old Royal Palace, there are hotels, open-air cafes, banks and institutions. Further east, towards the slopes of Lycabettus Hill, is Kolonaki Square, a new cultural center that includes the Byzantine Museum, the Benaki Museum, the National Art Gallery, the Conservatory and the Concert Hall. Further south are the New Royal Palace, the National Park and the Grand Panathenaic Stadium, which was reconstructed for the revived Olympic Games in 1896.

Today Athens is a modern city with a huge pace of life, modern and romantic at the same time, with busy streets and squares, with bright multi-colored shop windows, but also with secluded quiet alleys, with calm and secluded neighborhoods such as Plaka and Metz. In the countless shops of Athens, the buyer will find everything he wants; Athenian restaurants and taverns can satisfy any visitor.

Corfu island(Kerkyra in Greek) is located in the northwestern part of the Ionian Sea. The amazing landscape of the island combines mountains and plains, secluded bays and long beaches, monuments of ancient and modern architecture.

Being the crossroads of East and West at the entrance to the Adriatic, the island always attracts attention. Romans and Normans, Goths and Venetians, Turks and French, English and Russians passed through its lands. Corfu has brought together the traditions of many cultures, which gives the island an incomparable charm. Corfu has a Mediterranean climate, with almost no rain in summer. The best time to travel is: end of March - mid-June or beginning of September - end of October.

The unique beauty of the capital of the island of Corfu - the city of Corfu - is given by absolutely dissimilar architectural elements, as well as the remains of various cultures that flourished on the island, combined into one. The old town in Corfu is the largest "living" medieval complex in Greece, protected by the state. The layout of the streets here is chaotic, and the picturesque narrow streets - "kantunya", (they can only be walked on foot) lead to monuments, Byzantine churches, Venetian stairs and stone-clad springs.

Corfu is a city of two fortresses. On the one hand, the city is surrounded by the Old (Sea) Fortress, a Byzantine fortress rebuilt and fortified by the Venetians in 1546. On the other side, near the Old Port, is the New (Coastal) Fortress, built between 1576 and 1588 to protect the city from Turkish attack.

"Muraya" - a seafront promenade with lanterns, stretching along a medieval wall, is very picturesque: on one side it is bordered by a bright green sea, on the other - by bright green vegetation.

Corfu Island is an ideal place for a relaxing family and elite holiday, as well as for sports lovers. The coast of the island with excellent beaches and the azure sea water of the Ionian Sea stretches for 217 km. Here you can find a small secluded cove even at the height of the holiday season, when the crowded resorts of the east coast are filled with tourists. The most beautiful and sparkling yellow sand beaches are found in Agia Gordia, Korissi Lagoon, Agios Georgios, Marathia, Kassiopia, Sidari, Roda and other places.

It can be noisy and crowded in Corfu, especially at the height of the summer season, when not only charter flights, but also cruise ships from various European cities constantly arrive on the island.

The cosmopolitan atmosphere of the island resorts provides an opportunity to combine relaxation with various entertainment and the pleasures of an intense nightlife. At the disposal of tourists and guests of the island are ultra-modern tourist complexes, luxury hotels, family hotels and inexpensive studios.

In the town of Kontokali there are a lot of taverns, shops, a harbor with more than 600 yachts. In the town of Messonghi is the most beautiful olive grove of Corfu. And in the village of Moraitika, tourists will be pleased with a large number of bars, taverns and discos.

Crete is one of the largest islands in Greece. Crete is washed by three seas - the Ionian, Aegean and Mediterranean. The climate here is one of the mildest and healthiest in Europe. A whole chain of resort villages stretches along the coast of the island. On the north coast of Crete, the water is warmer than on the south coast due to the current passing by.

Thousands of tourists come to Crete every year to see the remains of the Minoan civilization that flourished here around 2600-1400 BC. one of the first civilizations in Europe. On Crete there are a large number of ruins from the Minoan era (the palaces of Knossos and Phaistos). Of interest to tourists are also the Venetian castle in Rethymnon, the Samaria Gorge, as well as many other smaller gorges.

Crete, inhabited for many millennia, keeps a diverse legacy of the Roman, Venetian and Turkic periods of rule - Venetian fortresses, Turkish mosques and Byzantine monasteries.

If you prefer a combination of holidays on the island with unforgettable excursions to the places of ancient civilizations, then Crete is the best choice. Crete offers vacationers unlimited opportunities for a great holiday in first-class hotels, resort villages or seaside complexes, bungalows with individual gardens, designed in such a way as not to disturb the purity and harmony of the environment. Crete is perfect for recreation and youth with its small budget and thirst for entertainment, and respectable tourists who are accustomed to comfort.

The large, modern city of Heraklion is the capital of Crete, a commercial center teeming with hotels, shops and transportation, and a starting point for tourists wishing to explore the island.

Rethymnon is a romantic city, in the construction of which the Venetians, Turks, and local residents took part. This left an indelible mark on the appearance of the city with narrow Venetian streets, minarets of ancient mosques and small bazaars with spices and sweets.

Chania is a jasmine city with ray streets leading from the old port deep into the city, framed by shops and leather workshops.

Kos Island the second largest island in the Dodecanese archipelago and one of the largest international tourist centers in Greece. Thanks to its mild climate with a very large number of sunny days and an abundance of freshwater springs, Kos is one of the greenest among the Greek islands. No wonder it has earned the right to be called the "Garden of the Aegean".

Kos is also known throughout the world as the birthplace of Hippocrates, the founder of medical science. Today, almost 2.5 thousand years after the death of the great scientist, the theatrical festival "The Hippocratic Oath" is held here annually.

The largest resort of Kos is Kardamena, which in a short period of time has turned from a small fishing village into a well-developed resort town with hotels, restaurants, bars and discos. The sandy beaches of Kardamena are empty only when there is no swimming season. The best beaches of Kos stretch to the west, one of the most popular among them is the white sandy beach of Paradise Beach.

In other coastal towns there are hotels of various levels with excellent service, in the best traditions of European resorts. There are gorgeous beaches in the southern part of the island in the Gulf of Kefalos, east of the city of the same name.

The city of Kos is the largest city of the island, its administrative center and at the same time a port. The city is young, its modern part is rebuilt in the Mediterranean style. On the central square of Eleutherias (Freedom) there is the Archaeological Museum, which contains a unique exposition of exhibits illustrating the rich history of the island.

Those who arrive in the city by sea are met in the port by the ancient fortress of the Knights of St. John, built in the 15th century. There are many cozy restaurants and bars in the port where you can taste national Greek cuisine, local wines and admire the picturesque panorama. Fans of sea trips can rent yachts, boats and traditional boats.

Near the port there is a large archaeological area with the ruins of buildings of the Hellenistic and Romanesque eras - Gymnasium, Odeon, as well as: the temple of Aphrodite, the temple of Hercules, Roman baths and Roman villas with mosaic fragments. An aqueduct connects the fortress with a small square where an ancient plane tree grows, according to legend, planted by Hippocrates himself.

Rhodes island- the main island of the Southern Sporades (Dodecanese) archipelago, located in the Aegean Sea, not far from the coast of Turkey. According to legend, when the island of Rhodes rose from the sea, Apollo was fascinated by its beauty and endowed it with his blessing. Rhodes is a magnificent nature and climate, many architectural monuments of various periods, from ancient Greek to modern.

Small forests consisting of pines, cypresses, evergreen oaks, Mediterranean-type shrubs - these are the main vegetation of the island. Vineyards, orchards, plantations of citrus fruits, and olives are located on the coastal lowlands. Rhodes is the largest of the Dodecanese Islands and ranks first in Greece in terms of the number of sunny days.

The capital of the island of Rhodes is the city of Rhodes, founded in 408 BC. Behind the powerful fortress walls is the old medieval city - one of the attractions of Rhodes. A walk through the cobbled streets and narrow alleyways takes you back centuries. Here you will see: the Palace of the Grand Master, the ruins of a medieval castle and the ancient Acropolis, an archaeological museum and other monuments of history and architecture.

Also, do not miss the opportunity to visit the famous Valley of the Butterflies, located near the village of Kalamonas. Archeology lovers should definitely visit Kamiros, the famous "Pompeii of Rhodes", as well as ancient Ialyssos with its Byzantine monasteries, the ruins of the Acropolis and the temple of the goddess Athena.

Of great interest is the town of Lindos with the ruins of the temple of Athena - Lindia, located on the site of the ancient city. Beautiful nature, excellent sandy beaches, beautiful St. Paul's Bay welcome thousands of tourists every year. In the summer, every two weeks, holidays are held here with national music, wine and dancing. With a wonderful climate, a good range of hotels, as well as numerous historical monuments, the island of Rhodes has been recognized by UNESCO as a world cultural heritage site.

Rhodes is washed by the waters of the Aegean and Mediterranean seas. The Aegean coast is characterized by rough waves and pebbly beaches, while the Mediterranean coast is characterized by sand and calm water. The Aegean coast attracts surfers, and the Mediterranean coast attracts lovers of a relaxing beach holiday and families with children.

The tourist center of Kallithea - Faliraki is one of the popular resorts of the island, famous for its hotels and beaches, as well as great opportunities for sports and entertainment lovers. Kallithea is also famous for its mineral springs.

A 10-minute drive from the city of Rhodes are the two most famous resorts of the island - Ixia and Ialyssos. Both tourist centers are famous for their excellent surf conditions, as this is where the best wave and the best wind on the island.

There are several more tourist areas on the island: Lindos, Archangelos, Embona and others. They are characterized by small secluded coves and sandy beaches.

A large network of hotel complexes, a European level of service, an abundance of restaurants with European and Greek national cuisine, traditional fish taverns, uzeri, eateries and bars, as well as numerous variety shows, shows, casinos and entertainment are always at your service. The motley picture of night life is perfectly harmoniously combined with the picturesque sandy beaches, clear clear sea and the beauty of the natural corners of Rhodes.

Peloponnese the southernmost part of mainland Greece. Once upon a time it was an island, but the geological process that took place in the area twice connected and separated it from the mainland. Later, as a result of the retreat of the sea, the Isthmus of Corinth arose. In the 19th century, a canal was made in this strip of land, which for the third time, but in an artificial way, turned the Peloponnese into an island. The climate in the Peloponnese is Mediterranean in the coastal regions and temperate continental in the central regions.

The Peloponnese peninsula is one of the few untouched places left in Greece. This is a place where life flows in its former unhurried rhythm, where every piece of land resurrects myths and great historical events in our minds. Peloponnese carries the sound of the sea, the majesty of the mountains, the aroma of vineyards, olive and citrus groves. Cities, villages and thermal springs, which made the region famous in ancient times, today attract thousands of visitors.

Many Peloponnesian cities, villages, resorts, which were of great importance in antiquity, have not lost it in our time. Three major highways lead to places rich in important archaeological sites, where the land itself has witnessed different historical eras. It is in the Peloponnese that the legendary ancient cities are located: Mycenae, Sparta, Epidaurus, Argos, Corinth, Patras.

Historical heritage is certainly the most attractive side of the Peloponnese. Arriving here, you need to visit such masterpieces of world architecture as the famous ancient theater, magical classical temples, medieval castles, mountain monasteries and Byzantine churches, as well as the circular wall of the fortress in Messen, rising and falling along the slopes of the hills for 9 km.

It is worth taking a walk along the cozy streets of the ancient cities of the Peloponnese, buying handmade souvenirs in a shop as a souvenir of the trip, and, lying on a velvet sandy beach near clear azure waters, admire the picturesque landscapes of high mountains covered with evergreen oaks and pines.

Before reaching the canal on the Isthmus of Corinth, you can get the first impression of the beauty of the Peloponnese by visiting the city of Loutraki. This city is a balneary with many hotels.

Kaiyafas - the same resort - hydropathic; located in the shade of pine trees, this city was already known in antiquity thanks to the source of healing waters.

The Peloponnese cannot yet boast such an extensive hotel base as, for example, the island of Crete has. However, here you can find hotels for every taste, including those belonging to the famous Greek chains.

The coastline of the Peloponnese is very indented: there are many narrow coves with beautiful beaches, framed by steep cliffs.
The climate of the Peloponnese resorts is milder than in the rest of Greece, which contributes to the influx of tourists. All conditions for family and children's recreation are created here.

City of Thessaloniki is the capital of Greek Macedonia. The stormy history of this region is captured in the appearance of the city, since for centuries its owners were the Romans, Byzantines, Ottoman Turks. All of them contributed to the culture of the city.

Thessaloniki got its name from the names of the young beauty of Thessaloniki, the half-sister of Alexander the Great and the wife of the Macedonian king Cassander, who founded this city in 315 BC. From 170 BC The city became the capital of the Roman province of Macedonia. In the 5th century, the first Christian churches were built here. In the Middle Ages, Saracens, Normans, as well as Ottoman Turks came here. During World War II, the city was occupied by the Nazis, and 50,000 local Jewish residents were killed in the city. In 1997 Thessaloniki was chosen as the European Capital of Culture.

Thessaloniki is a unique open-air museum of Byzantine art. Many interesting historical sights are scattered around the city. Of interest are: the tomb of King Philip, the father of Alexander the Great, with golden sarcophagi, valuable utensils and weapons, as well as the excavations of ancient Pella, the first capital of the Macedonian kingdom. From the village of Litohoro near Thessaloniki, the route of climbing Mount Olympus begins.

Thessaloniki is located on the shores of the Thermaic Gulf, famous for its clean water. Many of the local beaches are marked with the Blue Flags of the European Community - an award for the cleanliness of the sea and coast.

Unforgettable all kinds of entertainment await tourists here: diving, surfing and scuba diving. Kids will be thrilled at each of the four water parks with a variety of exciting rides, water slides and wave pools.

Thessaloniki is also the center of the intellectual and artistic life of modern Greece. Every autumn the International Thessaloniki Film Festival takes place here. In the city you can visit a variety of exhibitions, go to museums, theaters.

Thessaloniki has a large selection of shops, restaurants, cafes and discos. The most expensive boutiques are located on Tsimisku street. The largest selection of entertainment venues in the area, preserved in the style of the XVIII-IX centuries - Ladadika.

Where to stay.

Today, Greece attracts tourists not only with its amazing nature, but also with a developed tourist infrastructure. The hotel infrastructure of Greece is represented by hotels of different levels, both on the mainland and on the islands. Many hotels are all-inclusive, although there is also a fine selection of half-board or breakfast hotels. In Greece, there is an “old” hotel grading system - a letter one. That is, the level of the hotel class is indicated by letters, from L - luxury (similar to European five stars) and to E - hotels that have not been assigned any category.

Most family-type hotels are located in Halkidiki, Crete, Rhodes, Corfu. Thanks to the rapid development of tourism infrastructure in Greece, many new hotels have been built, as well as old ones have been modernized. In the competitive struggle, hotel owners began to pay more attention to creating special conditions for families with children, which today allows us to state with confidence that Greece is an ideal place for a family vacation. As a rule, such hotels are equipped with playgrounds, attractions, sports grounds, a childcare service is provided, and animators work.

For those who care about health and want to combine relaxation with wellness, in Greece you can find many hotels that have at their disposal well-equipped fitness rooms, gyms, spas, saunas, beauty salons and much more.

Rest in the private sector is also very popular, namely the rental of villas, cottages or apartments in close proximity to the seashore. This vacation option is optimal for large companies, families with children, as it allows you to save on the accommodation of a large number of people. "Plus" accommodation in a cottage - here you feel like in your own home, minus - service (food, cleaning, laundry) is not included in the rent.

Greek boarding houses (paradosiakoi oikismoi) can be considered no less popular. They can be found both in big cities and in the provinces. Boarding houses are either separate apartments with a shower, designed for 2-3 people, or small cottages with rooms for 4 people.

There are many well-equipped campsites in Greece. It is worth noting that parking outside of them is prohibited. Usually, the cost of spending the night in a campsite is 5-7 euros per person when staying in a house, within 8 euros for a "caravan" and a little less for spending the night in a tent.

There are 10 youth hostels in Greece, which are members of the International Association. Also here you can find a large number of hostels that are members of the Greek Association of Youth Hostels. If you want to stay in such a hostel, you will need an IYHF card. In most cases, you will be able to purchase it directly at the hostel, or pay a little extra on top of the existing rate. Towels and bed linen are paid separately. Accommodation prices range from 7-9 euros per day.

For pilgrims and just believing tourists, there is the possibility of living in monasteries. You need to know that while living in such a place, you will need to fully comply with the monastery's routine, as well as the requirements for the uniform. It is also possible that men can only stay in the men's monastery, women - respectively, in the women's one.

Tours and attractions in Greece

The history of Greece is rooted in a very distant past. The country is rightfully considered the cradle of Western civilization and democracy. Unique natural landscapes, excellent climate, an abundance of historical and architectural sights, impressive religious shrines and, of course, traditional Greek cuisine annually attract a large number of tourists from all over the world.

Athens, the capital of Greece, is one of the most beautiful and ancient European cities with a huge number of museums, architectural structures, unique ancient monuments and temples from different historical eras. The real pearl of Athens is the Ancient Acropolis with its majestic buildings, which perfectly illustrate the skill of ancient architects. The National Archaeological Museum has a rare collection of ancient artifacts of colossal historical value.

Interesting sights of Greece also include the ruins of the ancient Greek city of Delphi, located on the slope of Mount Parnassus, which in the ancient world was considered the center of the earth. Here was the sanctuary of Apollo with his famous Delphic oracle. The ancient Greek city of Eleusis, known for its Eleusinian mysteries, is also considered an important historical monument.

Among the religious shrines of Greece, the most impressive is the Meteor monastery complex, located near the city of Kalambaka. Meteora gained its fame due to its unique location on the tops of sheer cliffs in the Thesalian valley.

Greece consists of about 2000 islands. Crete is the largest island in Greece. The island is rich in beautiful architectural structures. Crete is famous for its picturesque gorges.

Rhodes is the pearl of the Mediterranean and is one of the most beautiful islands in Greece. Its picturesque bays, clear azure waters, the most important archaeological sites and knightly castles create an unforgettable flavor. Rhodes gained world fame thanks to the statue of the Colossus of Rhodes, one of the seven wonders of the world, located on the island in ancient times.

The natural landscapes of Corfu are also impressive. They are in perfect harmony with the unique architectural landmarks left over from the various cultures that have ever flourished on the island. The main square of the island's capital Spianada (Esplanade) is the second largest square in Europe.

In the southern part of the Aegean Sea lies the Cyclades archipelago, in the center of which is the island of Delos. It is one of the most important mythological, historical and archaeological sites in Greece. The uninhabited island of Delos is a unique place that is a huge open-air museum. Among the popular tourist destinations of the Cyclades archipelago, it is worth highlighting such islands as Naxos, Mykonos, Thira and Paros. The island of Thira gained its fame thanks to the active volcano Santorini, the eruption of which 3500 years ago is considered the most powerful in the history of the earth. There is an assumption that it was this volcanic eruption that destroyed the legendary Atlantis.

Greek Cuisine

Greek cuisine is simple, wholesome, unpretentious and uses the very best ingredients: olives, fruits and vegetables, freshly caught fish cooked in the finest local olive oil. Meat - usually lamb or pork - is stewed, baked or barbecued. Cheeses are very important in the local cuisine: salty feta is used in salads, halloumi is often grilled and amari is a soft, mild cheese like ricotta, used in sweet and spicy dishes.

Helpful information.

Tips for waiters are usually 5-10% of the total order. Tipping taxi drivers is not customary.

A visa is required to enter the country.

Churches and monasteries are open to the public, each according to their own rules. Churches are open during services. As a rule, museums are open daily, with the exception of Mondays, from 8 am to 3 pm. In summer, some museums are open until 7 pm. The Acropolis is open on summer evenings, on the full moon.

Shops are open on weekdays and Saturdays from 9 to 15 and from 17.30 to 20.30. Supermarkets are open Monday to Saturday from 8 am to 8 pm.

On weekdays, banks are open from 8.30 to 14.00 (on Friday until 13.30).

In Greece, value added tax (VAT) ranges from 8% to 36%. VAT refunds are made for purchases in stores that have the inscription "tax-free". The store issues a special receipt upon purchase, which must be shown at customs when leaving Greece along with the purchased item. Customs officers put a stamp on the receipt and send it to the store, which is obliged to transfer the amount of VAT to you within a month.

Pharmacies in the country are open all days except Sunday, and on Monday, Wednesday and Saturday they close at 13:00. In case of acute ailment, you need to call an ambulance, and not look for the nearest hospital.

Beware of pickpockets and bag thieves. It is especially necessary to be vigilant in the center of Athens, in public transport, in historical places of Greece popular among tourists.

Emergency phones.

Tourist Police - 171 (in Athens), 922-7777 (outside Athens)
Police - 100
Fire Department - 199
Ambulance - 166

National features of Greece. Traditions.

Shaking the head from the bottom up, in Greek means "no", and from top to bottom - "yes". In Greek, the sound "ne" means "yes", and the denial sounds like "oh".

The Greek "tomorrow" ("avrio") means something indefinite or a refusal.

It is not customary to take off your shoes in a Greek house.

It is customary to divide the history of Ancient Greece into 5 periods, which are also cultural epochs: Aegean or Crete-Mecenaean (III-II millennium BC
AD),
Homeric (XI-IX centuries BC);
Archaic (VIII-VI centuries BC);
Classical (V-IV centuries BC);
Hellenistic (second half IV-middle
Icc. BC.).

Period of Homeric Greece

Greek mythology

Archaic period

classical period

Hellenistic era