School Reform of 1864 in brief. Reforms of Alexander II

Reforms carried out by Alexander II in the period 1855-1881. and are still relevant to this day. He and his followers laid the foundations of modern state system management, government, executive and judicial systems.

So, for example, it was he and his followers-reformers who introduced the basic principles of civil and criminal judicial investigation and process, such as: legality, the administration of justice only by the court, respect for the honor and dignity of the individual, personal inviolability, protection of human and civil rights and freedoms. in legal proceedings, the inviolability of the home, the presumption of innocence, the adversarial nature of the parties, ensuring the citizen's right to defense, freedom to assess circumstances and others.

It should be noted that the reformation by Alexander II affected almost all aspects of the social life of Russian society: political, economic and social. The rapid development of railway construction, construction of transport infrastructure contributed to an increase in industrial productivity and the formation of new industries: chemical, textile, mining, machine building, etc. It was during his reign that the currently existing industrial centers Russia and neighboring countries: Donetsk, Kharkiv and Nikolaev regions in Ukraine, Volga and Ural regions - in Russia, Baku oil fields - in the Caucasus, etc.

The development of transport, the armed forces, the economy brought the Russian Empire out during the second half of the 19th century. at the very peak of her power, when they began to reckon with her in international politics and perceived as an equal in status to an international power.

Alexander Nikolaevich, the eldest son of Emperor Nicholas I and Empress Alexandra Feodorovna, ascended the throne after the death of Nicholas I.

Alexander Nikolaevich, in order to get acquainted with state affairs, from 1834 attended the meetings of the Senate, from 1835 - and the Synod.

The most important and, perhaps, one of the most difficult reforms under Alexander II in Russia was the abolition of serfdom by the Regulations of February 19, 1861. It is for this that the emperor was called the tsar-liberator among the people.

Serfdom in Russia lasted much longer than in any other European country. The government was able to abolish serfdom only in 1861. Back in 1856, the emperor, receiving representatives of the nobility, announced his intention to carry out a peasant reform.

In the economic sphere, there was an increase in the crisis of the landlord economy, based on the forced, extremely ineffective, labor of serfs. In the social sphere, there was an increase in peasant protest against serfdom, which was expressed in an increase in unrest. So, for example, in 1831-1840. there were 328 peasant unrest in Russia; in 1841-1850 - 545 peasant unrest; in 1851-1860 - 1010 peasant unrest.

The defeat in the Crimean War showed that serfdom - main reason military and technical backwardness of the country. Fearing that Russia would be thrown back into the ranks of the minor powers, to which our Fatherland in his work "Theory of Military Art" and attributed the ideologist of the Marxist movement - F. Engels, the government embarked on the path of social, economic and political reforms.

On January 3, 1857, the government formed a secret committee to discuss measures to arrange the life of the landlord peasants, but since it consisted of ardent serf-owners, it acted indecisively. However, after a while, noticing that peasant discontent did not subside, but, on the contrary, was growing, the committee proceeded closely to the preparation of the peasant reform. In February 1858, the Secret Committee was renamed the Main Committee "on landlord peasants coming out of serfdom."

Most of the landowners opposed the reform. Some landowners agreed, but on different conditions: some defended the option of emancipating the peasants without land and for the redemption of the personal freedom of the peasant, others, whose economy was more strongly involved in market relations, or intending to rebuild it on an entrepreneurial basis, advocated a more liberal version of it - liberation peasants with land with a relatively moderate ransom.

The preparation of the peasant reform took place in an atmosphere of social and political upsurge in the country. In the 1850s. two ideological centers were formed that headed the revolutionary-democratic direction of Russian thought: A. I. Herzen and N. P. Ogarev, N. G. Chernyshevsky and N. A. Dobrolyubov in London.

There is a revival of the liberal opposition movement among those strata of the nobility who considered it necessary not only to abolish serfdom, but also to create class-wide elective governing bodies, establish a public court, introduce publicity in general, carry out reforms in the field of education, etc.

By the end of August 1859, the draft "Regulations on the Peasants" had been prepared. At the end of January 1861, the project was submitted to the final instance - the State Council. Here, a new "addition" was made to the project in favor of the landowners: at the suggestion of one of the largest landowners, P.P. Gagarin, a clause was introduced on the landowner's right to give the peasants immediately ownership and free of charge a quarter of the allotment. This allotment was called "quarter" or "donation".

On February 19, the "Regulations" (17 pieces of legislation) were signed by the king and became effective. On the same day, the tsar signed the Manifesto on the emancipation of the peasants. According to the Manifesto, the peasants received complete personal freedom.

For centuries, peasants have fought for their freedom. If earlier the landowner could take away all his property from the serf, forcibly marry, sell, separate from his family and simply kill, then with the release of the Manifesto on February 19, 1861, the peasant was able to independently conclude transactions, open enterprises, transfer to other classes, etc. ... This provided an opportunity for the development of peasant entrepreneurship, contributed to the growth of the withdrawal of peasants to work, and in general gave an impetus to the development of the economy in post-reform Russia.

In accordance with the Manifesto of February 19, 1861, peasant self-government was introduced, that is, village and volost assemblies headed by village elders and volost elders. The peasants were given the right to distribute land, lay out duties, determine the order of serving the recruiting duty, accept into the community and dismiss from it.

The volost peasant court was introduced for minor crimes and property claims. The redemption of estates and field plots specified in the law was impossible for the peasants, so the government came to the aid of the peasantry by setting up a “redemption system”. The Manifesto of February 19, 1861 states that landowners will be able to receive a land loan as soon as their land relations with the peasants are arranged and a land allotment is established. The loan was issued to the landowner with profitable interest-bearing securities and was credited to the peasants as a state debt, which they had to repay within 49 years by "redemption payments".

The procedure for the implementation of the peasant reform required an agreement between the landlord and the peasant on the size of the allotment, as well as on the obligations of the peasant in relation to the landowner. This should have been stated in a "charter" within one year from the date of release. If the abolition of serfdom occurred immediately, then the elimination of feudal, economic relations, which had been established for decades, lasted for many years. According to the law, the peasants were obliged to serve the same obligations for two more years as under serfdom. The corvee was only slightly reduced and petty in-kind extortions were abolished. Prior to the transfer of peasants to ransom, they were in a temporarily liable position, that is, they were obliged to perform corvee according to the norms established by law for the allotments provided to them or to pay quitrent. Since there was no certain period after which the temporarily liable peasants had to be transferred to a compulsory ransom, their release lasted 20 years (although by 1881 there were no more than 15% of them). Despite the predatory nature of the reform of 1861 for the peasants, its significance for the further development of the country was very great. This reform was a turning point in the transition from feudalism to capitalism. The emancipation of the peasants contributed to the intensive growth of the labor force, and the granting of some civil rights to them contributed to the development of entrepreneurship. For the landowners, the reform ensured a gradual transition from feudal forms of economy to capitalist ones. 2. 2. Bourgeois reforms of Alexander II.

In accordance with the provisions of the reform, more than 22 million Russian peasants were freed in the country, and new order public peasant government.

The city reform of 1870 created all-estates bodies local government... Administrative functions were assigned to the representative body of urban society - the Duma. Duma elections were held every four years. The number of members of the Duma - vowels - was quite significant: depending on the number of voters in the city - from 30 to 72 people. In the metropolitan Duma there were more vowels: in Moscow - 180, in St. Petersburg - 252. At the meeting of the Duma, the executive body of public administration was elected - the government and the mayor, who was the chairman of the executive and administrative bodies.

The right to vote was based on property qualifications. Owners of immovable property taxed in favor of the city, as well as persons paying certain commercial and industrial fees to the city, received the right to participate in elections, regardless of class. The right to vote as legal entity also used by various departments, institutions, societies, companies, churches, monasteries. Only men over the age of 25 were allowed to take part in the voting in person. Women with the necessary electoral qualifications could participate in elections only through their proxies. In fact, hired workers, who in the overwhelming majority did not own real estate, as well as representatives of the educated part of the population, people of mental labor: engineers, doctors, teachers, officials, who mostly did not have their own houses, but rented apartments, were practically deprived of the right to vote.

The new public institutions were entrusted with the tasks of managing the municipal economy. They were in charge of issues of urban economy and improvement: water supply, sewerage, street lighting, transport, landscaping, urban planning problems, etc. City councils were obliged to take care of the "public welfare": to assist in providing the population with food, to take measures against fires and other disasters, to promote the protection of "public health" (to arrange hospitals, to help the police in carrying out sanitary and hygienic measures), to take measures against poverty, promote the spread of public education (establish schools, museums, etc.).

The judicial statutes of November 20, 1864 decisively broke with the pre-reform judicial system and legal proceedings. The new court was built on an unclassified basis, the irremovability of judges, the independence of the court from the administration, publicity, orality and adversarial proceedings were proclaimed; when considering criminal cases in the district court, the participation of a jury was envisaged.

In accordance with the provisions of the Judicial Reform of 1864, the judiciary was separated from the executive, administrative and legislative power, which balanced the branches of government in relations with each other. It should be recalled that, laid down by J.J. Rousseau, C.L. Montesquieu, N. Macchiavelli, M.A. Speransky (in Russia), the legal and democratic principles of the separation of powers were never implemented in the Russian state up to the reforms of Alexander II. This fact speaks of the democratic development of the state - the greatest, perhaps, than in many European countries.

The system of jurisdiction was also changed. The Magistrates' Court was created in counties and cities to consider minor criminal cases. The Magistrate's Court had jurisdiction over cases, for the commission of which there was a punishment in the form of a reprimand, remark or suggestion, a fine of not more than 300 rubles, arrest for not more than three months or imprisonment for not more than a year.

When considering criminal cases in the district court, the institution of jurors was envisaged. It was introduced despite the resistance of the conservative forces and even the reluctance of Alexander II himself. They motivated their negative attitude to the idea of ​​jurors by the fact that the people had not yet grown up to this, and such a trial would inevitably be “political in nature”.

According to the judicial statutes, a jury could be a citizen of Russia aged 25 to 70 years old, not under trial and investigation, not excluded from service by court and not subject to public condemnation for vices, not under guardianship, not suffering from mental illness, blindness, dumbness and lived in this district for at least two years. A relatively high property qualification was also required.

The second instance for the district courts was the judicial chamber, which had departments. The chairman and its members were approved by the king on the proposal of the Minister of Justice. She served as an appellate court for civil and criminal cases tried in district courts without a jury.

The Senate was viewed as the supreme court of cassation and had criminal and civil cassation departments. Senators were appointed by the king on the proposal of the Minister of Justice.

The Prosecutor's Office was reorganized, it was included in the judicial department, headed by the Prosecutor General, who is also the Minister of Justice.

Court presidents, prosecutors and judicial investigators were required to have a higher legal education or solid legal practice. Judges and examining magistrates were irremovable, and high salaries were assigned to them in order to secure honest professionals in the judiciary.

The largest step in the implementation of the principles of European justice was the establishment of the institution of the Bar.

On November 20, 1866, it was allowed "in all time-based publications to publish what was happening in the courts." Court reports reporting on Russian and foreign trials are becoming prominent in the press.

The state's defense system has also undergone significant changes.

When considering military reform, one should take into account its dependence on the socio-economic situation in the country and realities. international environment those years. Second half of the 19th century characterized by the formation of relatively stable military coalitions, which increased the threat of war and led to a rapid build-up of the military potential of all powers. Outlined in the middle of the XIX century. the decomposition of the Russian state system affected the state of the army. The unrest in the army was clearly revealed, there were cases of revolutionary uprisings, there was a decline in military discipline.

The first changes were made in the army in the late 1850s - early 1860s. Military settlements were finally abolished.

In 1862, a reform of the local military administration began on the basis of the creation of military districts. A new system of military command was created, eliminating centralization and facilitating the rapid deployment of the army in the event of war. The reorganization of the War Ministry and the General Staff was carried out.

In 1865, a military-judicial reform began. Its foundations were based on the principles of publicity and adversarial nature of the military court, on the rejection of the vicious system of corporal punishment. Three courts were established: regimental, military district and chief military courts, which duplicated the main links of the general judicial system of Russia.

The development of the army largely depended on the availability of a well-trained officer corps. In the mid-1860s, more than half of the officers did not have any education. It was necessary to solve two important issues: to significantly improve the training of officers and open access to obtaining officer ranks not only for noblemen and non-commissioned officers, but also for representatives of other estates. For this purpose, military and cadet schools were created with a short training period - 2 years, in which persons who graduated from secondary educational institutions were admitted.

On January 1, 1874, the military service charter was approved. The entire male population over the age of 21 was subject to conscription. For the army, a 6-year term of active service and a 9-year stay in the reserve were mainly established (for the fleet - 7 and 3). Numerous benefits have been established. The only son of his parents, the only breadwinner in the family, some national minorities, etc. were exempted from active service. New system made it possible to have a relatively small peacetime army and significant reserves in case of war.

The army has become modern - in structure, weapons, education. This already affected the course of the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878.

Changes in the system of culture and education also differed in depth and scale.

The economic process and further development of social life in Russia were seriously constrained by the low educational level of the population and the absence of a system for mass training of specialists.

In 1864, a new provision was introduced on elementary public schools, according to which the state, church and society (zemstvos and cities) were to be involved in the education of the people. In the same year, the charter of gymnasiums was approved, proclaiming the availability of secondary education for all classes and religions.

In 1863, a university charter was adopted, which returned autonomy to universities: the election of the rector, deans, professors was introduced; the university council received the right to independently decide all scientific, educational and administrative-financial issues. The results were not slow to show themselves: by 1870 there were 17,700 elementary schools of all kinds, with about 600,000 students enrolled in them; the number of students at universities increased by 1.5 times. This was, of course, not enough, but incomparably more than in the pre-reform period.

At this time, higher educational institutions for women were created (in St. Petersburg, Moscow, Kazan and Kiev), 3 universities were founded - Novorossiysk (1865), Warsaw (1865) and Tomsk (1880).

In 1863, a provision was adopted on the exemption from preliminary censorship of the capital's periodicals, as well as some books.

There was a gradual abolition of exclusionary and restrictive laws in relation to schismatics and Jews. However, after the suppression of the Polish uprising of 1863-1864. the government gradually moved to the course of limiting the reforms to a number of temporary regulations and ministerial circulars.

The consequence of this was the rise of the democratic movement in the country, which led to revolutionary terror.

On March 1, 1881, Emperor Alexander II was mortally wounded by a bomb thrown at him by the terrorist Grinevitsky. Alexander II is buried in the Peter and Paul Cathedral.

Internal unity and liberal orientation of the entire complex of reforms in the 1860s - 1870s. allowed Russia to take an important step towards a bourgeois monarchy and introduce new legal principles into the functioning of the state mechanism; gave an impetus to the formation of civil society, caused a social and cultural upsurge in the country. These are undoubted achievements and positive results of the reforms of Alexander II.

peasant reform stalin alexander

Chronology

• 1855 - 1881 The reign of Alexander II Nikolaevich
• 1861, February 19 Abolition of serfdom in Russia
• 1864 Carrying out judicial, rural and school reforms
• 1870 Implementation of urban reform
• 1874 military reform

Zemskaya reform (1864)

On January 1, 1864, Alexander II approved the "Regulations on provincial and district zemstvo institutions" - a legislative act that introduced zemstvo.

It should be borne in mind that for a country where the majority of the population were peasants who had just freed themselves from serfdom, the introduction of local governments was a significant step in the development of political culture. Elected by various estates of Russian society, zemstvo institutions were fundamentally different from corporate-estate organizations, such as noble assemblies. The serf owners were outraged that on the bench in the zemstvo assembly “yesterday’s slave was sitting next to his recent master”. Indeed, various estates were represented in the zemstvos - nobles, officials, clergy, merchants, industrialists, bourgeois and peasants.

Members of the zemstvo assemblies were called vowels. The meeting was chaired by the leaders of the noble self-government - the leaders of the nobility. The assemblies were formed by executive bodies - county and provincial zemstvo boards. Zemstvos received the right to collect taxes for their needs and hire employees.

The sphere of activity of the new bodies of all-class self-government was limited only to economic and cultural affairs: the maintenance of local communication routes, care for the medical care of the population, public education, local trade and industry, national food, etc. New organs of all-class self-government were introduced only at the level of provinces and counties. There was no central zemstvo representation, and there was no small zemstvo unit in the volost. Contemporaries wittily called the zemstvo “a building without a foundation and a roof”. The slogan "crowning the building" has since become the main slogan of Russian liberals for 40 years - right up to the creation of the State Duma.

Urban reform (1870)

The entry of Russia on the path of capitalism was marked by the rapid development of cities, a change in the social structure of their population, led to an increase in the role of cities as centers of the country's economic, socio-political and cultural life.

The city reform of 1870 created all-estates local self-government bodies. Administrative functions were no longer assigned to the entire city society, but to its representative body - the Duma. Duma elections were held every four years. The number of members of the Duma - vowels - was quite significant: depending on the number of voters in the city - from 30 to 72 people. In the metropolitan Duma there were much more vowels: in Moscow - 180, in St. Petersburg - 252. At the meeting of the Duma, the executive body of public administration was elected - the government and the mayor, who was the chairman of both the executive and administrative bodies.

The right to vote was based on the bourgeois property qualification. Owners of immovable property taxed in favor of the city, as well as persons paying certain commercial and industrial fees to the city, received the right to participate in elections, regardless of class. Various departments, institutions, societies, companies, churches, monasteries also enjoyed the right to vote as a legal entity. Only men over the age of 25 were allowed to take part in the voting in person. Women with the necessary electoral qualifications could participate in elections only through their proxies. In fact, hired workers, who in the overwhelming majority did not own immovable property, as well as representatives of the educated part of the population, people of mental labor: engineers, doctors, teachers, officials, who mostly did not have their own houses, but rented apartments, turned out to be deprived of the right to vote.

The new public institutions were entrusted with the tasks of managing the municipal economy. They were in charge of a wide range of issues of urban economy and improvement: water supply, sewerage, street lighting, transport, landscaping, urban planning problems, etc. City councils were obliged to take care of the "public welfare": to assist in providing the population with food, to take measures against fires and other disasters, to promote the protection of "public health" (to arrange hospitals, to help the police in carrying out sanitary and hygienic measures), to take measures against poverty, promote the spread of public education (establish schools, museums, etc.).

Judicial reform (1864)

Judicial charters November 20, 1864 decisively broke with the pre-reform judicial system and legal proceedings... The new court was built on an unclassified basis, the irremovability of judges, the independence of the court from the administration, publicity, orality and adversarial proceedings were proclaimed; when considering criminal cases in the district court, the participation of a jury was envisaged. These are all characteristic features of a bourgeois court.

Magistrate's Court was created in counties and cities for the consideration of minor criminal cases. The Magistrate's Court had jurisdiction over cases, for the commission of which there was a punishment in the form of a reprimand, remark or suggestion, a fine of not more than 300 rubles, arrest for not more than three months or imprisonment for not more than a year.

When considering criminal cases in the district court, it was envisaged jury institute... It was introduced despite the resistance of the conservative forces and even the reluctance of Alexander II himself. They motivated their negative attitude to the idea of ​​jurors by the fact that the people had not yet grown up to this, and such a trial would inevitably be “political in nature”. According to the judicial statutes, a jury could be a citizen of Russia aged 25 to 70 years old, not under trial and investigation, not excluded from service by court and not subject to public condemnation for vices, not under guardianship, not suffering from mental illness, blindness, dumbness and lived in this district for at least two years. A relatively high property qualification was also required.

The second instance for the district courts was judicial chamber, which had departments. The chairman and its members were approved by the king on the proposal of the Minister of Justice. She served as an appellate court for civil and criminal cases tried in district courts without a jury.

The Senate was viewed as the supreme court of cassation and had criminal and civil cassation departments. Senators were appointed by the king on the proposal of the Minister of Justice.

The Prosecutor's Office was reorganized, it was included in the judicial department, headed by the Prosecutor General, who is also the Minister of Justice.

Court presidents, prosecutors and judicial investigators were required to have a higher legal education or solid legal practice. Judges and examining magistrates were irremovable, and high salaries were assigned to them in order to secure honest professionals in the judiciary.

The largest step in introducing the principles of bourgeois justice was the establishment of the institution of the legal profession.

On November 20, 1866, it was allowed "in all time-based publications to publish what was happening in the courts." Court reports reporting on Russian and foreign trials are becoming prominent in the press.

Military reforms (60s - 70s)

By revising military reform one should take into account its dependence not only on the socio-economic situation in the country, but also on the realities of the international situation of those years. Second half of the 19th century characterized by the formation of relatively stable military coalitions, which increased the threat of war and led to a rapid build-up of the military potential of all powers. Outlined in the middle of the XIX century. the decomposition of the Russian state system affected the state of the army. The unrest in the army was clearly revealed, there were cases of revolutionary uprisings, there was a decline in military discipline.

The first changes were made in the army in the late 50s - early 60s. Military settlements were finally abolished.

WITH 1862 A gradual reform of local military administration began on the basis of the creation of military districts. A new system of military command was created, eliminating excessive centralization and facilitating the rapid deployment of the army in the event of war. The reorganization of the War Ministry and the General Staff was carried out.

V 1865 began to be held military judicial reform. Its foundations were based on the principles of publicity and adversarial nature of the military court, on the rejection of the vicious system of corporal punishment. Three courts have been established: regimental, military district and chief military courts, which duplicated the main links of the general judicial system of Russia.

The development of the army largely depended on the availability of a well-trained officer corps. In the mid-1960s, more than half of the officers had no education at all. It was necessary to solve two important issues: to significantly improve the training of officers and open access to obtaining officer ranks not only for noblemen and non-commissioned officers, but also for representatives of other estates. For this purpose, military and cadet schools were created with a short training period - 2 years, in which persons who graduated from secondary educational institutions were admitted.

On January 1, 1874, the military service charter was approved... The entire male population over the age of 21 was subject to conscription. For the army, a 6-year term of active service and a 9-year stay in the reserve were mainly established (for the fleet - 7 and 3). Numerous benefits have been established. The only son of his parents, the only breadwinner in the family, some national minorities, etc. were exempted from active service. The new system made it possible to have a relatively small peacetime army and significant reserves in case of war.

The army has become modern - in structure, weapons, education.

Education reforms

The economic process and further development of social life in Russia were seriously constrained by the low educational level of the population and the absence of a system for mass training of specialists. In 1864, a new provision was introduced about elementary public schools, according to which the education of the people was to be jointly dealt with by the state, church and society (zemstvos and cities). The same year was approved school charter, proclaiming the availability of secondary education for all classes and religions. Was adopted a year earlier university charter which returned autonomy to universities: the election of the rector, deans, professors was introduced; the university council received the right to independently decide all scientific, educational and administrative-financial issues. The results were not slow to show themselves: by 1870 there were 17,700 elementary schools of all kinds, with about 600,000 students enrolled in them; the number of students at universities increased by 1.5 times. This was, of course, not enough, but incomparably more than in the pre-reform period.

Internal unity and liberal orientation of the whole complex of reforms 60s - 70s allowed Russia to take an important step towards bourgeois monarchy and introduce new legal principles into the functioning of the state machinery; gave an impetus to the formation of civil society, caused a social and cultural upsurge in the country. These are undoubted achievements and positive results of the reforms of Alexander II.

Reforms of Alexander II:

• Peasant reform. Abolition of serfdom (1861);
• Financial reforms (since 1863);
• Education reform (1863);
• Zemskaya reform;
• City reform (1864);
• Judicial reform (1864);
• Public administration reform (1870);
• Military reform (1874).

The essence of the reforms of Alexander II was the restructuring of the state on new type, which could more effectively build an economy along the path of industrialization and capitalism.

The main reform of this period can be called the peasant reform, which proclaimed the abolition of serfdom in 1861. The reform was being prepared for several years and, despite the fact that the ruling classes did not want freedom for the peasants, the emperor understood that it was impossible to move on with serfdom, so the changes were nevertheless implemented. As a result of the reform, serfdom was abolished, the peasants gained independence and could redeem themselves from their landowner, while receiving an allotment for housekeeping. To carry out the ransom, a peasant could take out a bank loan for 49 years. The redeemed peasants were freed from administrative and legal dependence on the landlords. In addition, free peasants received a number of civil rights, could trade and carry out real estate transactions.

Another important reform is the reform of the judicial system. The court ceased to be guided by the class principle, and all citizens of the country now had equal rights before the law. The jury also appeared, and the judicial system was completely separated from the administrative one and formed into an independent institution.

Zemstvo reform and city reform were designed to simplify state administration and make it more efficient. According to the new laws, villages and cities could now form their own self-government bodies and deal with economic issues without waiting for orders from above. This made it possible to develop the economy of the regions, since the administration began to focus on the real situation in a particular province.

The military reform was supposed to make the army more effective so that the situation with the Crimean War would not repeat itself. Universal military service was introduced, the army received new weapons, and the principle of educating soldiers changed. Also, many educational institutions for the military have opened.

Together with military schools, new ordinary schools and universities began to open. University rectors received more rights and were able to make decisions on their own - this helped the country make a leap forward in public education.

The reform of the press was also important. The principle of publicity was proclaimed and the press was given the right to discuss and even criticize government decisions.

40. The emancipation of the peasants and the implementation of land reform.

February 19, 1861, on the fifth anniversary of his accession to the throne, Alexander II signed Manifesto on the abolition of serfdom in Russia and a number of "Provisions" that clarified the conditions for the liberation of the peasants. Former landlord peasants from the category of land users moved to the category of owners and acquired personal freedom. The peasant could now freely take a job, go to the city or engage in trades. General position about peasants who emerged from serfdom, recognized the landowner's right of ownership to all lands. Proceeding from this, the peasants were endowed with manor and field land not gratuitously, but for duties and then ransom. The priority was given to the "amicable" agreement between the peasants and the landowner. If it was not possible to reach such an agreement, the norms envisaged by the reformers came into effect. During the first two years, statutory letters were to be drawn up, defining the specific conditions for the liberation of the peasants. The peasants were transferred to the position temporarily liable. They remained in this state until the transition to ransom. The size of the peasant allotments was determined by local regulations. All provinces were divided into three bands (black earth, non-black earth and steppe). In the chernozem and non-chernozem zones in each locality, the highest and lowest allotment rates were determined. The peasants were supposed to transfer those plots that they used before the reform. If the allotment allotted to the peasant was more than the highest rate, then the landowner had the right to cut off the “surplus” to this rate. Conversely, if the actual allotment of the peasant was less than the lowest rate, then the landowner had to cut the land to this rate.

The landowners tried to establish norms in such an amount that it was possible to cut off part of the peasant lands in their favor. The submission by landowners to the Editorial Commission of understated data on the size of peasant allotments led to the fact that even after the increase in commissions higher standards peasants in most provinces lost part of their land. As a result, the peasants received an average of 3.4 tithes per capita. Meanwhile, to ensure a living wage, the peasant of the black earth zone had to have at least 5.5 dessiatines per capita, and in other localities - from 6 to 8 dessiatines.

Temporarily liable peasants had to perform temporary duties in the form of monetary quitrent or corvee in favor of the landowner. The period of transition from duties to ransom stretched over 20 years (from 1863 to 1883). Only in the western provinces were all the peasants immediately transferred to the category of peasant-owners. The quitrent was recognized as the main obligation. The size of the corvee was limited to 40 men's and 30 women's days per year. Two years later, the peasants could switch from corvée to quitrent without the consent of the landowner.

The value of the redemption of peasant obligations was determined as follows: the amount of capital was found, which, being deposited in a bank that pays 6% of profit on deposits per year, would bring annually the amount of quitrent received by the landowner. For example, if the rent was 10 rubles, the ransom was 166 rubles 66 kopecks. In other words, having deposited in the bank an amount of 166 rubles 66 kopecks, the landowner received 6% of this amount per year, which was exactly 10 rubles.

Of course, the peasants could not immediately pay the landlord the entire amount of the ransom. But the landowner was interested in receiving the entire amount at a time. Therefore, a redemption operation was carried out with the participation of the state. The peasants received a state loan in the amount of 80% of the redemption amount. The landlords received 80% of the total ransom immediately after the conclusion of the ransom transaction. The remaining 20% ​​of the peasants had to pay to the landowner by agreement. Then, for 49 years, the peasants had to return the loan to the state with interest in the form of redemption payments. The amount of these payments was much higher than the costs of the state.

According to the peasant reform of 1861, the community and its elected bodies became the lowest level of administrative management in the countryside on all categories of land. The functions of the community were defined, which received the name rural society, the rights and obligations of the village assembly as an assembly of heads of peasant households, as well as the headman elected by the village assembly.

Preparation of reforms
Preparations for the zemstvo reform began in 1859, when work on the peasant reform of 1861 was in full swing. The leader in this legislative activity of the government was N.A. resignation of Milyutin in April 1861. preparatory work Minister of Internal Affairs P.A.Valuev (opponent of Milyutin) was forced to reckon with this project and take it as a basis.
Formation of local authorities
The "Regulations on January 1, 1864" provided for the creation of a zemstvo in 34 provinces of the European part of Russia. Zemskaya reform did not apply to Siberia, Arkhangelsk, Astrakhan and Orenburg province, where there was almost no noble land tenure, as well as on the national outskirts of Russia - the Baltic States, Poland, the Caucasus, Kazakhstan, Central Asia. In 1911-13 zemstvo institutions, in addition to 34 provinces, were introduced in 9 more.
According to the "Regulations", zemstvo institutions were created in the uyezd and provinces, which consisted of zemstvo assemblies and zemstvo councils. The electoral system was based on a combination of estate and property principles. Every three years, residents of the county of different estates elected from 14 to 100-plus vowels - deputies of county zemstvo assemblies. Elections were held in curiae (parts), into which the entire district population was divided. The first curia consisted of landowners who had 200 acres or more of land (including allotment land ownership by peasants who had not yet passed to the ransom) or other real estate worth 15 thousand rubles, or an annual income of 6 thousand rubles. The tone in this curia was set by the nobles (landowners), but over time, representatives of other estates began to play an increasing role - merchants who bought up noble lands, rich peasants who acquired land as property. The second curia consisted of townspeople who owned merchant certificates, commercial and industrial enterprises with an annual income of at least 6 thousand rubles, owners of urban real estate worth at least 500 rubles. - in small and 2 thousand rubles. v large cities... The third curia mainly consisted of representatives of rural societies, peasants, for whom a special property qualification was not required. The creation of estate peasant self-government (rural and volost) made it possible to give the peasants access to all-estate zemstvo institutions. As a result of the first zemstvo elections in 1865-66, nobles accounted for 42% of the county and 74% of the provincial vowels, peasants, respectively, 38.5% and 10.6%, merchants - 10.4% and 11%. The vowels of the district zemstvos were elected in the curiae, and for the provincial ones - in the district zemstvo assemblies. The chairmen of the district and provincial zemstvo assemblies were the district and provincial leaders of the nobility. Zemsky assemblies were administrative bodies, they elected executive power - provincial and district zemstvo councils (three, five people).
Landships
The competence of the zemstvo was limited to local economic affairs (medicine, public education, agronomy, veterinary service, device local roads, organization of statistics, etc.). Zemstvo fees provided the financial basis for the activities of zemstvo institutions. The budget was approved by the Zemsky Assembly. It consisted mainly of taxes on real estate, primarily on land, while the main burden fell on the ownership of the peasants. Within the limits of their competence, the zemstvos enjoyed relative independence. The chairman of the provincial zemstvo council was approved by the minister of internal affairs.
In the structure of zemstvo institutions there was no "small zemstvo unit", that is, an all-estates volost zemstvo closest to the needs of the local population, nor was there a nationwide body that could coordinate the activities of local zemstvos. As a result, the zemstvos turned out to be "a building without a foundation and a roof." The government also hindered the communication of the zemstvos with each other, fearing constitutional trends. The zemstvos did not have their own bodies of coercive power, which forced them to turn to the administration and the police. All this put the zemstvo from the very first steps in opposition to the autocratic power and at the same time made it vulnerable, not protected from the press of the mighty state machine. A general revision of the zemstvo reform was carried out during the reign Alexander III... In 1890, the Zemstvo counter-reform was adopted, which significantly limited the rights of the Zemstvos.
The meaning of the Zemstvo reform
The zemstvo reform created a new, modern institution of local self-government in Russia, introduced the previously completely disenfranchised peasantry to civil life, and contributed to the development of local amenities. The zemstvo intellectual described by A.P. Chekhov - a doctor and teacher, an unselfish ascetic and expert in his field - became the personification best features Russian intelligentsia

See No. 39 and 40

4. Zemskaya and city reforms carried out in 1864 and 1870, respectively, formed elected local government bodies on the basis of suffrage for curial system (with different norms of representation for different classes) and property qualification. In the cities they became city ​​councils whose executive bodies were city ​​councils and led them mayor and in countryside- county and provincial zemstvo meetings(or simply zemstvos) with executive bodies represented by zemstvo councils.

Despite the limitation of their powers to issues of economy, health care and education (power still remained in the hands of governors appointed by the government), zemstvos and city councils gave the liberal intelligentsia the first experience organization... The best forces of the intelligentsia went to them, thanks to which education and medical care were significantly improved, especially in rural areas.

5. Educational reforms consisted in the introduction of elective self-government of universities (1863), equality of estates upon admission to educational institutions (with the exception of certain elite) - while maintaining, however, high tuition fees. The main types of secondary schools were gymnasiums with a humanitarian bias and real schools who gave mainly technical education. The first women's gymnasiums and higher women's courses were created, which marked the beginning of women's education in Russia.

6. In a row military reforms the main thing was the replacement of the Petrine recruiting system of manning the army general conscription(1874), which made it possible to deploy a massive army from a trained reserve during the war (following the example of the advanced European countries). Henceforth, conscription into the army was subject to all estates (except for the clergy), not excluding and nobles. Have secondary or higher education were called on preferential terms and with a reduction in service life as volunteers... From now on, the conditions for exemption from military service were not class origin, but marital status (the only breadwinner in the family) or a socially significant profession (teachers, doctors, etc.).

In addition, the terms of service of soldiers and sailors were reduced from 25 to 6 years (later - 3 years in the army and 5 years in the navy), corporal punishment for them, which had been widely used earlier (1863), was abolished. The territory of the country was divided into military districts... The army was equipped with rifled weapons, the navy - with steam, and then armored ships.

The level of military education has significantly increased: a network of military academies was founded (before that there was one Academy of the General Staff, founded under Nicholas I) and schools separated from the senior classes of cadet corps. Access to military educational institutions (except for the most elite ones, such as the Corps of Pages) was opened again for all classes ... Thanks to this, if in the era of serfdom the officers of the Russian army were almost entirely from the nobility, now access to the officer rank was open to almost everyone, and by the beginning of the First World War more than half of the officers (with the exception of the guard) did not have a noble origin.

Total value Great reforms as the second modernization of Russia can be formulated in three main directions :

1. Transition to a liberal, humanistic path political development without revolution (characteristic difference from most Western countries ).

2. Transition to a more efficient, market capitalist path of development the economy based not on coercion, but on incentives such as freedom of hired labor, competition and unemployment.

3. In social relations - the weakening of the estate system, which was a relic of feudal society.

42. The growth of the social movement and opposition to the autocracy. Activities of underground and terrorist organizations ("Land and Freedom", "Narodnaya Volya", "Black Redistribution").

"Land and Freedom”, The (first) society was born at the end of 1861. NG Chernyshevsky, NN Obruchev (author of revolutionary proclamations, under Alexander III - chief of the general staff) took part in it. A. A. Sleptsov, brothers N. A. and A. A. Serno-Solovievichi, P. I. Bokov, N. I. Utin and others. M. I. Mikhailov did not participate in "Land and Freedom": he was arrested before its occurrence. The society was associated with A. I. Herzen and N. P. Ogarev. At the end of 1863, after the suppression of the Polish uprising and the triumph of the reaction, "Land and Freedom" was liquidated by its participants.

The main task of the party was to work among the masses to prepare for the uprising. Within the "Land and Freedom" party, two streams were formed: the landowners - "villagers" and the landowners - "townspeople". The first worked among the peasantry, preparing the ground for the future revolutionary activity in the countryside, while the latter gathered in cities, turning their attention to the workers, as to the most revolutionary stratum of the population. The most important point of the society's program was "the transfer of all the land into the hands of the rural working class", and a number of democratic demands were put forward, which could be achieved "only through a violent coup."

People's will- a revolutionary populist organization that arose in 1879 after the split of the organization "Land and Freedom", which set the main goal of forcing the government to democratic reforms, after which it would be possible to carry out a struggle for the social transformation of society. Terror has become one of the main methods of political struggle of "Narodnaya Volya". In particular, members of the terrorist faction of the People's Will hoped to push political changes the assassination of Emperor Alexander II. The name of its participants is derived from the name of the organization - Narodnaya Volya... Small on numerical strength The party, which relied on the sympathy of a part of the intelligentsia and did not have soil among the broad masses, displayed such energy that it itself believed in its own strength and made it believe in it. By the policy of Count MT Loris-Melikov, a part of society that had previously sympathized with Narodnaya Volya was pushed away from it. When the party, not softened by concessions, on March 1, 1881, assassinated Emperor Alexander II, this assassination caused not only a government reaction, but also a public reaction on a much wider scale than the People's Will expected. Nevertheless, in the following years, the party continued its activities.

Black Redistribution- a secret society associated with the magazine of the same name. “Black Redistribution” was formed during the disintegration of the society “Land and Freedom” in 1879; the terrorist wing of the latter formed Narodnaya Volya, and the wing that remained true to purely populist tendencies - the Black Redistribution society. The Chernoperedeltsy set as their immediate task the organization of a broad popular militant party, but the conditions and conditions of revolutionary activity in Russia by the end of 1879 had changed so much that the fulfillment of this task under the given political conditions became completely impossible. The former landowners' settlements in the villages have completely disintegrated; Attempts to restore them failed, and the Chernoperedeltsy had to concentrate all their activities in the cities on promoting populist ideas among the intelligentsia and workers. But even here they were unsuccessful; the call for activity among the people had by this time lost its former charm. The party organizational work of the "Black Redistribution" was also extremely unsuccessful. Among the persons who entered the "Black Redistribution" (the printing group) was the worker Zhirnov, who turned out to be a traitor and soon betrayed all the members of the group. The organization suffered an irreparable blow. At the beginning of 1880, the main members of the "Black Redistribution" - Plekhanov, Zasudit Stefanovich, Deutsch - went abroad and there they formed in 1883 s-d. group "Emancipation of Labor".

43. The reign of Alexander III: the state of the economy, the development of capitalist relations. Foreign policy.

Domestic policy Alexander III (1881 - 1894) was consistent. It was based on a complex of quite definite ideas about what Russia should become. Alexander III was a conservative by nature, upbringing, life experience... His convictions were formed under the influence of the bitter experience of the struggle between the government and the revolutionaries-populists, which he witnessed and whose victim was his father, Alexander II. The instructions of K.P. Pobedonostsev, a prominent ideologist of Russian conservatism, were found in the person of the new monarch as a grateful student, ready to follow them.

Having removed from power the liberal ministers (D. N. Milyutin, M. T. Loris-Melikov, A. A. Abaza, and others), having executed the First Martyrs by court order, the tsar firmly announced his intention to assert and protect the autocracy. Alexander III believed in the historical mission of Russia, in the autocracy, called upon to lead her on the road of victories, in Orthodoxy, the spiritual support of the people and power. Autocratic power, the tsar believed, should help the bewildered society to find ground under its feet, surround it with care and guardianship, severely punish for disobedience. Alexander III felt himself to be the father of a large family in need of his firm hand.

Politics in the peasant question. In 1881, a law was passed on the obligatory redemption by peasants of their allotments.

Work policy. The laws of 1882-1886 the foundations of labor legislation were laid: the labor of children under the age of twelve was prohibited; night work of women and minors is prohibited; the terms of employment and the procedure for terminating contracts between workers and entrepreneurs have been determined.

Police activities. The order on the "Reinforced Guard" (1881) allowed the introduction of a special position in unreliable provinces.

Events in the field of print and education. The new "Provisional Regulations on the Press" (1882) established the most severe censorship and made it possible to freely close unwanted publications.

Counter-reforms. 1889-1892 Law of 1889 established the position of the zemstvo chief. Zemsky chiefs received administrative and judicial powers, could dismiss village elders from office, subject to corporal punishment, fines, and arrest of peasants. They were appointed by the government from among the local hereditary nobles.

The law of 1890 actually deprived the peasants of the right to nominate vowels to the district and provincial zemstvo institutions. Now they were appointed by the governor.

The law of 1892 introduced a high property qualification; artisans and small traders were removed from the elections to the city duma.

In the 80s. the government got the opportunity to remove judges at its discretion, removed political cases from jury trials, fired many prosecutors who served in the 60-70s.

Historians call these measures counter-reforms to emphasize that they were directed against the transformations of the reign of Alexander II.

The assessment of the reign of Alexander III cannot be unambiguous. On the one hand, the government ensured internal stability, industry developed rapidly, and foreign capital flowed into the country. On the other hand, the tsar's attempts to reverse the processes begun during the years of "great reforms" did not meet the needs of a rapidly changing society. The modernization of the economy that began in post-reform Russia gave rise to acute, qualitatively new problems and conflicts. The government, which saw its purpose in restraining society, protecting it from changes, could not cope with new problems. The results were not slow to show themselves: the revolution that shook the foundations of the old system took place ten years after the death of Alexander III.

44. Russia at the beginning of the twentieth century: characteristics of economic potential. A crisis political system autocracy. Formation of illegal political parties. Russo-Japanese War 1904-1905

The calm, according to the definition of the Minister of Foreign Affairs NK Girs, the policy of Alexander III was continued in the first decade of the reign of Nicholas II (1894-1917). "Calm" consisted in maintaining friendly relations with France, respectful, but lacking confidence - with Germany, aimed at preserving the current state of affairs in the Balkan affairs - with Austria-Hungary, friendly and not too warm - with Great Britain.

The "calm policy" of Nicholas II in European affairs was determined by the need to ensure favorable external conditions for the economic development of Russia, which was solving painful tasks of modernization, on the one hand, and for strengthening Russian influence in the Far East, on the other. It was in the Far East that the most important foreign policy event in Russian history at the beginning of the 20th century took place. - Russian-Japanese war of 1904-1905.

Causes of the Russo-Japanese War. The situation in the Far East demanded active action from Russia. China, weakened by a protracted crisis, has riveted the selfish attention of all major players in world politics: Great Britain, France, Germany, USA, Japan, Russia. There was a fierce struggle to divide the spheres of influence in China. Japan in 1894 sent troops to Korea, entered the war with China, imposed humiliating peace conditions on it (they were partially revised under pressure from Russia, France and Germany). Russia in 1891 began the construction of the Trans-Siberian Railway, considering it as the beginning of the energetic development of its Siberian and Far Eastern outskirts. In 1896, China granted Russia a concession for the construction of the Sino-Eastern railroad(CER), in 1898 obtained the right to lease the southern part of the Liaodong Peninsula with the fortress-port of Port Arthur and the port of Dalny. The Boxer Rebellion in China gave rise to foreign powers to openly intervene in internal Chinese affairs. Russia sent troops into Manchuria and, despite the protests of Japan, which enlisted the support of Germany and Great Britain, refused to withdraw them (although the Russian-Japanese agreement provided for the withdrawal of troops by the fall of 1904). Japan, in turn, imposed on Russia the terms of the agreement on Korea that were unacceptable for it. It was heading towards open confrontation.

On the night of January 27, 1904, Japanese destroyers attacked Russian ships stationed in the outer roadstead of Port Arthur, as well as the cruiser Varyag and the gunboat Koreets. The war has begun.

The course of hostilities. On land, the Russian troops (A.N.Kuropatkin was appointed commander-in-chief, deprived of any significant military talents) were defeated in the battles at Laoyang (August 1904), near the Shahe River (October 1904), near Mukden (February 1905). In all battles, the Russian armies were outnumbered. The Japanese turned out to be stronger in military-technical terms, their generals were better at waging modern warfare. In December, Port Arthur fell, besieged in July - it was surrendered by the ignorant and cowardly General A.M. Stoessel.

The reasons for the defeat of Russia. Unpreparedness of the top leadership for war; military-technical lagging behind; mediocre command; the length of communications, the remoteness of the theater of military operations; foreign policy isolation (Russia was not supported by any large state that feared its strengthening in the Far East).

Results and consequences of the war. The peace treaty was signed in Portsmouth, in the United States, which mediated in the negotiations. Despite the extremely unfortunate course of the war, S. Yu. Witte managed to conclude a profitable (taking into account the current situation) peace: Russia ceded South Sakhalin and Port Arthur to Japan, recognized Korea as a zone of Japanese interests, but avoided paying indemnities. Both countries pledged to withdraw their troops from Manchuria.

The consequences of the military defeat for Russia were significant: the authority of the authorities in the eyes of society was disastrously undermined; opposition and revolutionary sentiments intensified. The war, perceived as a national shame, which claimed tens of thousands of human lives, played a role in the development of the revolution of 1905-1907.

As a result Russo-Japanese War 1904-1905 Japan became the leading power in the Far East. Russia's foreign policy positions were seriously undermined. The defeat also exposed the flaws of its military organization (the technical backwardness of the fleet, the weakness of the top commanding staff, shortcomings in the management and supply system) and contributed to the deepening of the crisis of the monarchical system.

Political parties in Russia at the beginning of the XX century. (conservative, liberal, radical)

Events 1905-1907 created favorable conditions for the formation of many political parties - both all-Russian and local, of which there were up to 50. All these parties belonged to three main directions: conservative-monarchist; liberal opposition; revolutionary democratic (radical).

In the course of the revolution, monarchical and nationalist parties emerged - the Russian Monarchist Party (spring 1905), the Union of the Russian People (November 1905), and others. The leaders of the right were V.M. Purishkevich, A.I. Dubrovin, N.E. Markov II, II Vostorgov, GG Rosen, and others. The social basis of these parties was made up of the aristocracy, officials, Orthodox clergy, small merchants and bourgeoisie, part of the monarchist-minded peasants and intelligentsia. "

In October 1905, liberal parties emerged. On October 12-18, the 1st Congress of the Constitutional Democratic Party (Cadets) was held, which since 1906 was also called the "Party of People's Freedom".

The second large liberal party was the "Union of October 17" (Octobrists), which arose in October 1905 - February 1906. The leaders of the party were well-known businessmen and financiers A.I. Guchkov, M.V. Rodzianko, brothers P.P. and V.P. Ryabushinskiy, N.S. Avdakov, as well as representatives of the intelligentsia L.N. Benois, prof. IN AND. Guerrier. The Octobrists were the party of big business. They advocated the strengthening of a constitutional monarchy of a non-parliamentary type, their program assumed the implementation of civil liberties, but with the preservation of "one and indivisible Russia." The program proclaimed the need for social reforms - social insurance of workers and limitation of the working day, transfer of state lands and lands of the imperial family to the peasants. An intermediate position between the Cadets and the Octobrists was occupied by the Party of Peaceful Renovation and its successor, the Party of Progressives.

During the revolution, the Socialist-Revolutionary Party reached its maximum number - 50-60 thousand people, and the majority of its members were peasants, although the intelligentsia predominated in the leadership. The main goal of the Socialist-Revolutionaries in the revolution was the overthrow of the autocracy and the establishment democratic republic, so they boycotted the elections to the First State Duma. The Social Revolutionaries took part in almost all armed uprisings and uprisings, carried out acts of terror. February 4, 1905 I.P. Kalyaev killed the uncle of the emperor, Grand Duke Sergei Alexandrovich (Governor-General of Moscow).

Representatives of the "Labor People's Socialist Party" (Popular Socialist Party), created in September-November 1906, also adhered to the neo-folk ideology.

The Enes and Socialist-Revolutionaries provided big influence against the peasantry and its representatives in the State Duma, who formed the "Labor Group". In addition, peasant organizations arose in 1905, the largest of which was the All-Russian Peasant Union, with up to 200 thousand members (leaders - S.V. Kurnin, V.F. Krasnov, SP. And V.P. Mazurenko) ...

During the revolution, the Social Democrats remained divided into Bolsheviks and Mensheviks, which greatly complicated their actions.

The largest political parties Russia took part in the main events of the revolution, including the activities of the I and II State Dumas. But one should not exaggerate the degree of their influence on the population of the empire: in 1906-1907. the total number of members of all parties was only about 0.5% of the total population of Russia.

45. Revolution of 1905-1907: reasons, course of the protest movement, growth political crisis... Manifesto of October 17, 1905 and its influence on the revolutionary movement.

In the nineteenth century, the Russian Empire was in a state of an implicit but deep crisis. The reasons were that the country lagged far behind its more developed neighbors in social and administrative terms. There were serious problems in management and in the use of resources, popular discontent grew, even the nobility began to demand changes.

Alexander II made an attempt to solve all these problems. His reforms did not prevent the revolution, which nevertheless happened later, but improved the life of the country for several decades.

What exactly did Alexander II change during his reign?

It is impossible to study the reforms of the emperor in all details in brief overview... But even a simple listing of them allows you to well imagine how progressive and timely the actions of the ruler were.

Alexander II spent:

• ... Absolutely all the peasants of the empire ceased to be serfs and acquired the status of full citizens - and for this they did not need to “buy out” themselves from the landowner.
• Military reform... First of all, the system of physical punishment, which caused colossal discontent during the reign of Nicholas I, was abolished. In addition, now military service extended to all classes, and people from all walks of life could voluntarily enroll in military schools.
• Financial reform. The emperor put things in order in the expenditures and revenues of the state - from now on, the budget passed mandatory approval from the state council and personally from the king, ministries were obliged to report on their spending. The implementation of the rules was monitored by special commissions, in addition, the established budget was published in the press.
• ... The activities of the courts were completely removed from the control of other branches of government - in other words, the courts became independent and impartial. Also, Alexander II for the first time introduced the so-called adversarial principle - from now on, a person could not be convicted without a lawyer, any defendant was necessarily assigned a lawyer.
• ... Their essence is approximately the same - in cities, provinces and counties, new governing bodies were created, consisting mainly of local residents... From now on, all issues related to the life and development of a city, district or province were decided not by officials from distant regions, but by local commissions, well acquainted with the needs of the population and the realities of the geographical area.
• ... Universities were granted greater freedom of self-government. In addition, it became easier for people from poor families to enroll in education, and the very first schools for women also appeared.

The reforms of Alexander II are often called liberal. And one cannot but agree with this term. Against the background of his predecessors, the emperor became a real "liberator" for the people, allowed the development civil society, improved the lives of the lower strata of the population.

(Great reforms) - reforms carried out in the 60s-70s of the 19th century in Russian Empire Emperor Alexander 2 and affecting almost all spheres of state life.

Prerequisites and reasons for the reforms of Alexander II

Russia, longer than any other state, remained a country with a feudal system and serfdom. By the middle of the 19th century, this type of state finally outlived its usefulness, and the conflict, which had been brewing since the 18th century, reached its peak. It was necessary to urgently change both the state structure and, mainly, the economic system.

With the development of technology and the advent of industrial technology, the need for manual labor more and more disappeared, but the landlords still actively used the labor of the peasants, imposing huge taxes on them. As a result, the peasantry was ruined everywhere, widespread strikes and hunger strikes began, which led to a significant decline in the serf economy and the income of the landlords. The state, in turn, also received less profit from the ruined landowners, and the treasury suffered. This situation did not suit either side.

The developing industry also suffered, since due to the widespread enslavement of the peasants, there was not enough free labor that could service the machines in factories.

In 1859-1861, peasant riots and revolutionary sentiments reached their peak. The situation was also aggravated by the lost Crimean War, which finally undermined the confidence of citizens in the tsar and the government, which showed its complete failure, both economically and militarily. In such a situation, talks began about the need to abolish serfdom and new reforms that would help the country get out of the crisis.

Emperor Alexander II, who came to the throne in 1855, at one of his speeches before the nobility declared the need for the speedy elimination of serfdom from above (by decree of the sovereign), otherwise it would happen from below (revolution).

The era of great reforms began.

Major reforms of Alexander II

Among the main political reforms of Alexander II are:

• Peasant Reform (1861);
• Financial reform (1863);
• Education reform (1863);
• Zemskaya reform (1864);
• Judicial reform (1864);
• Reform of state self-government (1870);
• Military reform (1874);

The essence of all the reforms of Alexander II was the restructuring of society and the management system and the formation of a new type of state. One of the most important reforms can be called the abolition of serfdom in 1861. The reform was being prepared for several years and, despite the resistance of the nobility and the bourgeoisie, was nevertheless carried out. As a result of the peasant reform, all peasants were freed from serfdom - along with personal freedom, they also received a small piece of land completely free of charge, on which they could live and work. In addition, a peasant could buy an arable land for himself for a small amount - this contributed a lot of money to the state treasury. In addition, the peasants received a number of civil rights: they could make purchase and sale transactions, they could open trade and industrial enterprises, qualify for a transfer to another class. They were also freed from administrative and legal dependence on their former landowners.

Another reform of Alexander II is the reform of the press. In the Empire, such a concept as publicity and freedom of the press (relative) appeared, newspapers could discuss events carried out by the government and even criticize individual ministers, however, without affecting the emperor. Also, the “iron curtain” was removed, and people could leave the country more freely.

The judicial system has also changed. The old type of court was replaced by a new one, which proclaimed the principle of unity for all estates and the principle of publicity and openness. A jury trial appeared, which allowed the legal proceedings to be separated from executive power and make more independent decisions.

Zemsky and city reforms formed open local self-government bodies, courts and local governments appeared in cities - this greatly simplified the process of city self-government.

The military reform involved replacing the Petrine system of recruits with universal military service. This allowed the creation of a larger army that could be mobilized in as soon as possible as needed. The level of military education has also increased due to the growth of military schools and academies.

Along with the development of military academies, other educational institutions began to appear. Through educational reform general level education of society began to grow rapidly.

The results and consequences of the reforms of Alexander II

Political and financial reforms carried out by Alexander II are not called great for nothing. Thanks to them, the foundation was laid for the formation of a new type of society in the Russian Empire - an industrial society of the capitalist type. The state became more democratic, citizens began to have more equal rights, independent of the class, as well as the opportunity to have a fair and open court. The press became freer, allowing citizens to discuss and condemn government decisions.

The liberation of peasants and reforms in the economy allowed the country to overcome the crisis and create all conditions for further successful growth, taking into account the new economic realities.

Overall, the country has undergone significant changes that have helped it rise to the new way development, more successful and modern.