Geological period. Neogene period. Triassic. Jurassic period. Jurassic period The forest of the Jurassic period was dominated by plants
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And was replaced by chalk, and had a duration of about 56 million years.
Geography and climate
- During the Jurassic period, the supercontinent Pangea began to split into two separate continents: the northern part known as Laurasia (which eventually split into North America and Eurasia, opening up the basins to Atlantic Ocean
- , and the Gulf of Mexico)
the southern part - Gondwanaland - drifted east (and eventually divided into Antarctica, Madagascar, India and Australia, and its western part formed Africa and South America).
This process of Pangea's separation, along with warmer global temperatures, allowed reptiles such as dinosaurs to diversify and dominate the Earth for long periods of time.
Plant life
During the Mesozoic era, plants developed the ability to lead a terrestrial lifestyle and not be limited only to the oceans. By the beginning of the Jurassic, life came from bryophytes, low-growing bryophytes and liverworts, which had no vascular tissue and were limited to wet, marshy areas.
Ginkgo trees Ferns and gingaceae, which had roots and vascular tissue for transporting water and nutrients, and reproduced by spores, were the dominant plants of the Early Jurassic. Appeared during the Jurassic period new way plant propagation. Gymnosperms such as coniferous trees , have developed pollen, which, with the help of the wind, is distributed over long distances and pollinates female cones . This method of reproduction made it possible to significantly increase the number of gymnosperms by the end of the Jurassic period. Flowering plants
did not evolve until the Cretaceous period.
Age of Dinosaurs
As depicted in the movie Jurassic Park, reptiles were the dominant animal life form during the Jurassic period. They overcame evolutionary obstacles that limited . Reptiles had strong, ossified skeletons with advanced muscular systems to support and move the body. Some of the largest animals that ever lived were the dinosaurs of the Jurassic period. Reptiles could also develop amniotic eggs that were incubated on land.
Sauropods (lizard-footed dinosaurs) are herbivorous quadrupeds with long necks and heavy tails. Many sauropods, such as brachiosaurs, were huge. Representatives of some genera had a body length of about 25 m, and weight ranged from 50-100 tons, which makes them the largest land animals that have ever existed on Earth. Their skulls were relatively small, with nostrils raised high towards the eyes. Such small skulls meant very small brains. Despite their small brains, this group of animals flourished during the Jurassic period and had a wide range of geographical distribution. Sauropod fossils have been found on every continent except Antarctica. Other famous Jurassic dinosaurs include stegosaurs and flying pterosaurs.
Carnosaurs were one of the main predators Mesozoic era. The genus Allosaurus was one of the most widespread carnosaurs in North America. They are similar to later tyrannosaurs, although studies have shown that they have little in common. Allosaurs had strong hind limbs, heavy front legs and long jaws.
Early mammals
Adelobazilevs
Dinosaurs may have been the dominant land animals, but they were not the only fauna. Early mammals were mostly very small herbivores or insectivores, and did not compete with larger reptiles. Adelobasileus is a predatory ancestor of mammals. He had a special structure of the inner ear and jaws. This animal appeared at the end of the Triassic period.
In August 2011, scientists from China announced the discovery of Yuramaya. This tiny mid-Jurassic animal has caused excitement among scientists because it was a clear ancestor placental mammals, indicating that mammals evolved much earlier than previously thought.
Sea life
Plesiosaur
The Jurassic period was also very diverse. The largest sea predators there were plesiosaurs. These carnivorous marine reptiles typically had wide bodies and long necks with four flipper-shaped limbs.
Ichthyosaur - marine reptile, was most common in the Early Jurassic. Because some fossils have been found with smaller individuals of their species inside their bodies, it is suggested that these animals may have been among the first to experience internal pregnancy and give birth to live young.
Cephalopods were also widespread during the Jurassic period and included the ancestors of modern squids. Among the most beautiful fossils of marine life are the spiral-shaped shells of ammonites.
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Jurassic period- This is the second (middle) period of the Mesozoic era. It begins 201 million years before our times, lasts 56 million years and ends 145 million years ago (according to other sources, the duration of the Jurassic period is 69 million years: 213 - 144 million years). Named after the mountains Yura, in which its sedimentary layers were first identified. Notable for the widespread proliferation of dinosaurs.
Main subsections of the Jurassic period, its geography and climate
In accordance with the classification adopted by the International Union of Geological Sciences, The Jurassic period is divided into three divisions- Lower - Leyas (stages - Hettangian, Sinemurian, Pliensbachian, Toarcian), Middle - Dogger (stages - Aalenian, Bayocian, Bathian, Callovian) and Upper Small (stages - Oxfordian, Kimmeridge, Tithonian).
| Jurassic period | Departments | tiers |
| Leias (Lower) | Hettangian | |
| Sinemyursky | ||
| Pliensbachian | ||
| Toarsky | ||
| Dogger (Medium) | Aalensky | |
| Bayocian | ||
| Bathian | ||
| Callovian | ||
| Small (Upper) | Oxford | |
| Kimmeridge | ||
| Tetonian |
During this period, the division of Pangea into component blocks - continents - continued. Upper Laurentia, which later became North America and Europe, finally separated from Gondwana, which again began to move south. As a result, the connection between global continents was disrupted, which had a important influence for the further evolution and development of flora and fauna. The differences that arose at that time are sharply expressed to this day.
The Tethys Sea, which expanded even more as a result of the divergence of the continents, now occupied most of modern Europe. It originated from the Iberian Peninsula and, crossing the south and southeast of Asia diagonally, came out in Pacific Ocean. Most of what is now France, Spain and England were under his warm waters. On the left, as a result of the separation of the North American section of Gondwanaland, a depression began to emerge, which in the future became the Atlantic Ocean.
With the beginning of the Jurassic era average temperature on globe gradually began to decline, and therefore in the lower section Jurassic climate was close to temperate - subtropical. But closer to the middle, the temperature began to rise again, and by the beginning of the Cretaceous period the climate became a greenhouse.
Sea levels rose and fell slightly throughout the Jurassic, but average height sea level was an order of magnitude higher than in the Triassic. As a result of the divergence of continental blocks, a great many small lakes were formed, in which both plant and plant life began to develop and progress very quickly. animal life, so that the quantitative and qualitative level of flora and fauna of the Jurassic period soon caught up and surpassed the Permian level to the point of worldwide mass extinction.
Sedimentation
With a drop in temperature throughout the earth, multiple precipitation began to fall abundantly, which contributed to the advancement of vegetation, and then the animal world, into the depths of the continents, which is due to Jurassic sedimentation. But the formation products are the most intense for this period earth's crust under the influence of continental shifts, and as a consequence - volcanic and other seismic activity. These are various igneous, clastic rocks. There are large deposits of shale, sand, clay, conglomerates, and limestone.
The warm and stable climate of the Jurassic period greatly contributed to the rapid development, formation and evolutionary improvement of both previous and new life forms.
(Fig. 1) rose to a new level in comparison with the sluggish Triassic, which did not particularly shine with varieties.
, both in the distant oceanic depths and in the warm coastal and inland seas.
Belemnites reached unprecedented development in the Jurassic era. They gathered in flocks and roamed the depths of the sea in search of unwary prey. Some of them at that time reached three meters in length. The remains of their shells, nicknamed “devil’s fingers” by scientists, are found almost everywhere in Jurassic sediments. There were also numerous bivalve mollusks belonging to the oyster species. At that time, they began to form peculiar oyster banks. Numerous, which abundantly populated reef areas at that time. Some of them have successfully survived to this day. But many, such as elongated hedgehogs of irregular shapes that had a jaw apparatus, became extinct.
Insects also took a big step in their development. Their visual, flying and other devices were increasingly improved. More and more varieties appeared among barnacles, decapods, and leaf-footed crustaceans; most freshwater sponges and caddisflies multiplied and evolved. Ground Jurassic insects were replenished with new varieties of dragonflies, beetles, cicadas, bugs, etc. Along with the emergence huge amount flowering plants began to appear and a large number of pollinating insects that feed on flower nectar.
But it was reptiles that achieved the greatest development in the Jurassic era - dinosaurs. By the middle of the Jurassic period, they completely took over all land areas, displacing or destroying their reptilian predecessors, from whom they descended, in the pursuit of food.
IN sea depths already at the beginning of the Jurassic period reigned supreme dolphin-like ichthyosaurs. Their long heads had strong, elongated jaws studded with rows of sharp teeth, and large, highly developed eyes were framed by bone-plate rings. By the middle of the period they had become real giants. The length of the skull of some ichthyosaurs reached 3 meters, and the body length exceeded 12 meters. The limbs of these aquatic reptiles evolved under the influence of underwater life and consisted of simple bony plates. Elbows, metatarsals, hands and fingers ceased to differ from each other; one huge flipper supported more than a hundred bone plates of various sizes. The shoulder and pelvic girdles became underdeveloped, but this was not necessary, since mobility in aquatic environment they were provided with additionally grown powerful fins.
Another reptile that seriously and permanently settled in the depths of the sea was plesiosaur. They, like ichthyosaurs, arose in the seas during the Triassic period, but in the Jurassic period they branched into two varieties. Some had a long neck and a small head (plesiosaurs), others had an order of magnitude larger head, and a much shorter neck, which made them look more like underdeveloped crocodiles. Both of them, unlike ichthyosaurs, still needed rest on land, and therefore often crawled onto it, becoming the prey of land giants, such as, for example, a tyrannosaurus or herds of smaller predatory reptiles. Very agile in the water, on land they were clumsy fur seals our time. Pliosaurs were much more maneuverable in the water, but what plesiosaurs lacked in agility they made up for with their long necks, which allowed them to instantly grab prey no matter what position their bodies were in.
All kinds of fish species multiplied unusually in the Jurassic period. The water depths were literally teeming with a motley variety of coral ray-finned, cartilaginous and ganoids. Sharks and rays were also diverse, still constituting, due to their extraordinary agility, speed and agility developed over hundreds of millions of years of evolution, Jurassic underwater reptile predators. Also during this period, many new varieties of turtles and toads appeared.
But the terrestrial diversity of reptile dinosaurs was truly remarkable.
(Fig. 2) were from 10 centimeters to 30 meters in height. Many of them were simple, harmless herbivores, but often there were also ferocious predators.
Rice. 2 - Jurassic Dinosaurs One of the largest herbivorous dinosaurs was brontosaurus
(now - Apatosaurus). Its body weighed 30 tons, its length from head to tail reached 20 meters. And despite the fact that his height at the shoulders reached only 4.5 meters, with the help of his neck, which reached a length of 5-6 meters, they perfectly ate up tree foliage. But the largest dinosaur of that era, as well as the absolute champion among all animals of the Earth of all times, was a 50-ton herbivore brachiosaurus
It is appropriate to say a few words about predators, of which there were also many in the Jurassic period. The most gigantic and dangerous predator of the Jurassic is considered to be 12 meters tyrannosaurus, but as scientists have proven, this predator was more opportunistic in its views on food. He rarely hunted, often preferring carrion. But they were truly dangerous allosaurus. With a height of 4 meters and a length of 11 meters, these reptile predators hunted prey that was many times larger than them in weight and other parameters. Often they, huddled in a herd, attacked such herbivorous giants of that era as the Camarasaurus (47 tons) and the aforementioned Apatosaurus.
There were also smaller predators, for example, such as 3-meter dilophosaurs, weighing only 400 kg, but flocking together, they attacked even larger predators.
In view of the ever-increasing danger from predatory individuals, evolution has awarded some herbivorous individuals with formidable elements of defense. For example, such a herbivorous dinosaur as centrosaurus was endowed with elements of protection in the form of huge sharp spikes on the tail and sharp plates along the ridge. The spikes were so large that with a strong blow, the Kentrosaurus would have pierced through a predator such as a Velociraptor or even a Dilophosaurus.
For all that, the animal world of the Jurassic period was carefully balanced. The population of herbivorous lizards was regulated by predatory lizards, predators were restrained by many smaller predators and aggressive herbivores, like stegosaurs. Thus, the natural balance was maintained for many millions of years, and what caused the extinction of dinosaurs in the Cretaceous period is still not known.
By the middle of the Jurassic period air space was filled with many flying dinosaurs such as pterodactyls and other pterosaurs. They glide quite skillfully in the air, but in order to take to the skies, they needed to climb to impressive heights. These, for the most part, were not very mobile specimens of ancient mammals, but from the air they could very successfully track and attack prey in a pack method. Smaller representatives of flying dinosaurs preferred to make do with carrion.
In Jurassic sediments, the remains of a fledgling Archeopteryx lizard were found, which for a long time considered by scientists to be the ancestor of birds. But, as was recently scientifically proven, this species of lizard was a dead end. Birds evolved mainly from other species of reptiles. Archeopteryx had a long feathered tail, jaws studded with small teeth, and the feathered wings had developed fingers, with the help of which the animal grabbed branches. Archeopteryx flew poorly, mainly gliding from branch to branch. Basically, they preferred to climb tree trunks, digging into their bark and branches with the help of sharp curved claws. It is noteworthy that in our time only the chicks of the hoatzin bird have fingers on their wings.
The first birds, represented by small dinosaurs, jumped high either in an attempt to reach insects fluttering in the sky, or in order to escape from predators. In the process of evolution, they became more and more feathered, their jumps became longer and longer. During the jumping process, the future birds helped themselves more and more intensively by waving their forelimbs. Over time, their now wings, and not just forelimbs, acquired more and more powerful muscles, and the structure of their bones became hollow, as a result of which total weight birds became much easier. And all this led to the fact that by the end of the Jurassic period, the air space of the Jurassic, along with pterosaurs, was plowed by a large number of all kinds of ancient birds.
In the Jurassic period they actively reproduced and small mammals. But still they were not allowed to express themselves widely, since the ubiquitous power of dinosaurs was too overwhelming.
Since, during the process of climate change, the vast deserts of the Triassic began to be abundantly irrigated by precipitation, this created the preconditions for the advancement of vegetation further into the continents, and closer to the middle of the Jurassic period, almost the entire surface of the continents was covered with lush vegetation.
All low-lying places are abundantly overgrown with ferns, cycads and coniferous thickets. The sea coasts were occupied by araucarias, thujas and, again, cycads. Also, vast land masses were occupied by ferns and horsetails. Despite the fact that by the beginning of the Jurassic period the vegetation on the continents of the northern hemisphere was relatively uniform, by the middle of the Jurassic two already established and strengthened main belts of vegetation massifs were formed - northern and southern.
Northern belt was notable for the fact that at that time it was formed mainly by ginkgo plants mixed with herbaceous ferns. With all that half all vegetation northern latitudes Jurassic period consisted of varieties of ginkgo, today only one species of these plants has miraculously survived.
Southern belt were mainly cycads and tree ferns. At all Jurassic plants(Fig. 3) more than half still consisted of various ferns. Horsetails and mosses of those times were almost no different from today. In those places where cordaite and ferns grew en masse during the Jurassic period, this moment tropical cycad jungle grows. Of the gymnosperms, cycads were the most common in the Jurassic. Nowadays they can be found only in tropical and subtropical zones. It was these, with their crowns reminiscent of modern palm trees, that most herbivorous dinosaurs fed on.
Rice. 3 - Plants of the Jurassic period
In the Jurassic period, deciduous ginkgos first began to appear in northern latitudes. And in the second half of the period, the first spruce and cypress trees appeared. Coniferous forests The Jurassic looked very much like modern ones.
Minerals of the Jurassic period
The most pronounced mineral resources dating back to the Jurassic period are European and North American chromite deposits, Caucasian and Japanese copper-pyrite deposits, Alpine deposits of manganese ores, tungsten ores of the Verkhoyansk-Chukotka region, Transbaikalia, Indonesia, and the North American Cordillera. Also to this era can be attributed deposits of tin, molybdenum, gold and other rare metals scattered throughout, formed in the late Cimmerian era and thrown to the surface as a result of granitoid mechanisms associated with the separation of continents that took place at the end of the Jurassic period. Iron ore deposits are numerous and widespread. There are uranium ore deposits on the Colorado Plateau.
And Switzerland. Beginning of the Jurassic period radiometric method determined at 185±5 million years, end at 132±5 million years; the total duration of the period is about 53 million years (according to 1975 data).
The Jurassic system in its modern extent was identified in 1822 by the German scientist A. Humboldt under the name “Jurassic formation” in the Jura mountains (Switzerland), Swabian and Franconian Albs (). In the territory, Jurassic deposits were first established by the German geologist L. Buch (1840). The first scheme of their stratigraphy and division was developed by the Russian geologist K. F. Roulier (1845-49) in the Moscow region.
Divisions. All the main divisions of the Jurassic system, which were subsequently included in the general stratigraphic scale, are identified in the territory of Central Europe and Great Britain. The division of the Jurassic system into departments was proposed by L. Buch (1836). The foundations of the staged division of the Jurassic were laid by the French geologist A. d'Orbigny (1850-52). The German geologist A. Oppel was the first to produce (1856-58) a detailed (zonal) division of Jurassic deposits. See table.
Most foreign geologists classify the Callovian Stage as the middle section, citing the priority of the three-member division of the Jurassic (black, brown, white) by L. Bukh (1839). The Tithonian Stage is recognized in the sediments of the Mediterranean biogeographical province (Oppel, 1865); for the northern (boreal) province, its equivalent is the Volgian stage, first identified in the Volga region (Nikitin, 1881).
general characteristics. Jurassic deposits are widespread on all continents and are present in the periphery, parts of ocean basins, forming the base of their sedimentary layer. By the beginning of the Jurassic period, two large continental masses separated in the structure of the earth’s crust: Laurasia, which included platforms and Paleozoic folded areas of North America and Eurasia, and Gondwana, which united platforms Southern Hemisphere. They were separated by the Mediterranean geosynclinal belt, which was the Tethys oceanic basin. The opposite hemisphere of the Earth was occupied by the Pacific Ocean depression, along the margins of which geosynclinal regions of the Pacific geosynclinal belt developed.
In the Tethys oceanic basin, throughout the Jurassic period, deep-sea siliceous, clayey and carbonate sediments accumulated, accompanied in places by manifestations of submarine tholeiitic-basaltic volcanism. The wide southern passive margin of Tethys was an area of accumulation of shallow-water carbonate sediments. On the northern outskirts, which is in different places and in different time had both an active and passive character, the composition of the sediments was more variegated: sandy-clayey, carbonate, in places flysch, sometimes with the manifestation of calc-alkaline volcanism. Geosynclinal areas of the Pacific belt developed in the regime of active margins. They are sharply dominated by sandy-clayey deposits, a lot of siliceous deposits, very active volcanic activity. The main part of Laurasia in the Early and Middle Jurassic was land. In the Early Jurassic, marine transgressions from geosynclinal belts captured only the territories Western Europe, the northern part of Western Siberia, the eastern margin of the Siberian Platform, and in the Middle Jurassic and southern part Eastern European. At the beginning of the Late Jurassic, transgression reached its maximum, spreading to western part North American platform, Eastern European, all Western Siberia, Ciscaucasia and Transcaspian region. Gondwana remained dry land throughout the Jurassic period. Marine transgressions from the southern edge of Tethys involved only northeastern part African and northwestern part of the Hindustan platforms. The seas within Laurasia and Gondwana were vast but shallow epicontinental basins where thin sandy-clayey sediments accumulated, and in the Late Jurassic in areas adjacent to the Tethys - carbonate and lagoonal (gypsum and salt-bearing) sediments. In the rest of the territory, Jurassic deposits are either absent or represented by continental sandy-clayey, often coal-bearing strata, filling individual depressions. The Pacific Ocean in the Jurassic was a typical oceanic basin, where thin carbonate-siliceous sediments and covers of tholeiitic basalts accumulated, preserved in the western part of the basin. At the end of the Middle - beginning of the Late Jurassic, the formation of “young” oceans began; The opening of the Central Atlantic, the Somali and North Australian basins of the Indian Ocean, and the Amerasian basin of the Arctic Ocean occurs, thereby beginning the process of dismemberment of Laurasia and Gondwana and the separation of modern continents and platforms.
The end of the Jurassic period is the time of manifestation of the Late Cimmerian phase of Mesozoic folding in geosynclinal belts. In the Mediterranean belt, folding movements manifested themselves in places at the beginning of the Bajocian, in Pre-Callovian time (Crimea, Caucasus), and at the end of the Jurassic (Alps, etc.). But they reached a particular scale in the Pacific belt: in the Cordillera of North America (Nevadian folding), and the Verkhoyansk-Chukotka region (Verkhoyansk folding), where they were accompanied by the introduction of large granitoid intrusions, and completed the geosynclinal development of the regions.
The organic world of the Earth in the Jurassic period had a typically Mesozoic appearance. Marine invertebrates are thriving cephalopods(ammonites, belemnites), bivalves and gastropods, six-rayed corals, “irregular” sea urchins. Among vertebrates in the Jurassic period, reptiles (lizards) sharply predominated, which reached gigantic size(up to 25-30 m) and great variety. There are known terrestrial herbivores and predatory lizards (dinosaurs), sea-swimming ones (ichthyosaurs, plesiosaurs), and flying lizards (pterosaurs). IN water pools Fish are widespread; the first (toothed) birds appear in the air in the Late Jurassic. Mammals, represented by small ones, are also primitive forms, are not very common. The land cover of the Jurassic period is characterized by the maximum development of gymnosperms (cycads, bennetites, ginkgos, conifers), as well as ferns.
, conglomerates formed in a variety of conditions.
Jurassic System Division
The Jurassic system is divided into 3 divisions and 11 tiers:
| system | Department | tier | Age, million years ago | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Chalk | Lower | Berriasian | less | |
| Yura | Upper (malm) |
Tetonian | 152,1-145,0 | |
| Kimmeridge | 157,3-152,1 | |||
| Oxford | 163,5-157,3 | |||
| Average (dogger) |
Callovian | 166,1-163,5 | ||
| Bathian | 168,3-166,1 | |||
| Bayocian | 170,3-168,3 | |||
| Aalensky | 174,1-170,3 | |||
| Lower (lias) |
Toarsky | 182,7-174,1 | ||
| Pliensbachian | 190,8-182,7 | |||
| Sinemyursky | 199,3-190,8 | |||
| Hettangian | 201,3-199,3 | |||
| Triassic | Upper | Rhetic | more | |
| Divisions are given according to IUGS as of April 2016 | ||||
Geological events
213-145 million years ago, the single supercontinent Pangea began to break up into separate continental blocks. Shallow seas formed between them.
Climate
The climate in the Jurassic period was humid and warm (and by the end of the period - arid in the equator region).
Vegetation
During the Jurassic, vast areas were covered with lush vegetation, primarily diverse forests. They mainly consisted of ferns and gymnosperms.
Land animals
One of the fossil creatures that combines the characteristics of birds and reptiles is Archeopteryx, or the first bird. His skeleton was first discovered in the so-called lithographic shales in Germany. The discovery was made two years after the publication of Charles Darwin's work "On the Origin of Species" and became a strong argument in favor of the theory of evolution - it was initially considered a transitional form from reptiles to birds (in fact, it was a dead-end branch of evolution, not directly related to real birds) . Archeopteryx flew rather poorly (gliding from tree to tree), and was approximately the size of a crow. Instead of a beak, it had a pair of toothy, albeit weak, jaws. There were free fingers on his wings (from modern birds they are preserved only in hoatzin chicks).
During the Jurassic period, small, furry, warm-blooded animals called mammals lived on Earth. They live next to dinosaurs and are almost invisible against their background. During the Jurassic period, the division of mammals into monotremes, marsupials and placentals occurred.
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Notes
Literature
- Iordansky N. N. Development of life on earth. - M.: Education, 1981.
- Karakash N. I. ,.// Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Efron: in 86 volumes (82 volumes and 4 additional). - St. Petersburg. , 1890-1907.
- Koronovsky N.V., Khain V.E., Yasamanov N.A. Historical geology: Textbook. - M.: Academy, 2006.
- Ushakov S.A., Yasamanov N.A. Continental drift and climates of the Earth. - M.: Mysl, 1984.
- Yasamanov N.A. Ancient climates of the Earth. - L.: Gidrometeoizdat, 1985.
- Yasamanov N.A. Popular paleogeography. - M.: Mysl, 1985.
Links
- - Site about the Jurassic period, a large library of paleontological books and articles.
| ← | P A l e O h O th |
Mesozoic (252.2-66.0 million years ago) | TO A th n O h O th |
→ | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| ← | Triassic (252,2-201,3) |
Jurassic period (201,3-145,0) |
Cretaceous period (145,0-66,0) |
→ | ||
An excerpt characterizing the Jurassic period
Yes, happy Napoleon,Having learned through experience what Bagration is like,
Alkidov doesn’t dare bother the Russians any more...”
But he had not yet finished the verses when the loud butler announced: “The food is ready!” The door opened, a Polish voice thundered from the dining room: “Roll out the thunder of victory, rejoice, brave Ross,” and Count Ilya Andreich, looking angrily at the author, who continued to read poetry, bowed to Bagration. Everyone stood up, feeling that dinner was more important than poetry, and again Bagration went to the table ahead of everyone. In the first place, between the two Alexanders - Bekleshov and Naryshkin, which also had significance in relation to the name of the sovereign, Bagration was seated: 300 people were seated in the dining room according to rank and importance, who was more important, closer to the guest being honored: as naturally as water spills deeper there, where the terrain is lower.
Just before dinner, Count Ilya Andreich introduced his son to the prince. Bagration, recognizing him, said several awkward, awkward words, like all the words he spoke that day. Count Ilya Andreich joyfully and proudly looked around at everyone while Bagration spoke with his son.
Nikolai Rostov, Denisov and his new acquaintance Dolokhov sat down together almost in the middle of the table. Opposite them, Pierre sat down next to Prince Nesvitsky. Count Ilya Andreich sat opposite Bagration with other elders and treated the prince, personifying Moscow hospitality.
His labors were not in vain. His dinners, fast and fast, were magnificent, but he still could not be completely calm until the end of dinner. He winked at the barman, whispered orders to the footmen, and, not without excitement, awaited each dish he knew. Everything was amazing. On the second course, along with the gigantic sterlet (when Ilya Andreich saw it, he blushed with joy and shyness), the footmen began popping the corks and pouring champagne. After the fish, which made some impression, Count Ilya Andreich exchanged glances with the other elders. - “There will be a lot of toasts, it’s time to start!” – he whispered and took the glass in his hands and stood up. Everyone fell silent and waited for him to speak.
- Health of the Emperor! - he shouted, and at that very moment his kind eyes were moistened with tears of joy and delight. At that very moment they started playing: “Roll the thunder of victory.” Everyone stood up from their seats and shouted hurray! and Bagration shouted hurray! in the same voice with which he shouted on the Shengraben field. The enthusiastic voice of young Rostov was heard from behind all 300 voices. He almost cried. “The health of the Emperor,” he shouted, “hurray!” – Having drunk his glass in one gulp, he threw it on the floor. Many followed his example. And the loud screams continued for a long time. When the voices fell silent, the footmen picked up the broken dishes, and everyone began to sit down, smiling at their shouts and talking to each other. Count Ilya Andreich stood up again, looked at the note lying next to his plate and proposed a toast to the health of the hero of our last campaign, Prince Pyotr Ivanovich Bagration, and again the count’s blue eyes were moistened with tears. Hooray! the voices of 300 guests shouted again, and instead of music, singers were heard singing a cantata composed by Pavel Ivanovich Kutuzov.
“All obstacles for the Russians are in vain,
Bravery is the key to victory,
We have Bagrations,
All enemies will be at your feet,” etc.
The singers had just finished when more and more toasts followed, during which Count Ilya Andreich became more and more emotional, and even more dishes were broken, and even more shouting. They drank to the health of Bekleshov, Naryshkin, Uvarov, Dolgorukov, Apraksin, Valuev, to the health of the foremen, to the health of the manager, to the health of all club members, to the health of all club guests, and finally, separately to the health of the founder of the dinner, Count Ilya Andreich. At this toast, the count took out a handkerchief and, covering his face with it, completely burst into tears.
Pierre sat opposite Dolokhov and Nikolai Rostov. He ate a lot and greedily and drank a lot, as always. But those who knew him briefly saw that some big change had taken place in him that day. He was silent the entire time of dinner and, squinting and wincing, looked around him or, stopping his eyes, with an air of complete absent-mindedness, rubbed the bridge of his nose with his finger. His face was sad and gloomy. He seemed to not see or hear anything happening around him, and was thinking about something alone, heavy and unresolved.
This unresolved question that tormented him, there were hints from the princess in Moscow about Dolokhov’s closeness to his wife and this morning the anonymous letter he received, in which it was said with that vile playfulness that is characteristic of all anonymous letters that he sees poorly through his glasses, and that his wife’s connection with Dolokhov is a secret only to him. Pierre decidedly did not believe either the princess’s hints or the letter, but he was now afraid to look at Dolokhov, who was sitting in front of him. Every time his gaze accidentally met Dolokhov’s beautiful, insolent eyes, Pierre felt something terrible, ugly rising in his soul, and he quickly turned away. Unwittingly remembering everything that had happened with his wife and her relationship with Dolokhov, Pierre saw clearly that what was said in the letter could be true, could at least seem true if it did not concern his wife. Pierre involuntarily recalled how Dolokhov, to whom everything was returned after the campaign, returned to St. Petersburg and came to him. Taking advantage of his carousing friendship with Pierre, Dolokhov came directly to his house, and Pierre accommodated him and lent him money. Pierre recalled how Helen, smiling, expressed her displeasure that Dolokhov lived in their house, and how Dolokhov cynically praised the beauty of his wife, and how from that time until his arrival in Moscow he was not separated from them for a minute.
“Yes, he is very handsome,” thought Pierre, I know him. It would be a special delight for him to dishonor my name and laugh at me, precisely because I worked for him and looked after him, helped him. I know, I understand what salt this should give to his deception in his eyes, if it were true. Yes, if it were true; but I don’t believe, I don’t have the right and I can’t believe.” He recalled the expression that Dolokhov's face took on when moments of cruelty came over him, like those in which he tied up a policeman with a bear and set him afloat, or when he challenged a man to a duel without any reason, or killed a coachman's horse with a pistol. . This expression was often on Dolokhov's face when he looked at him. “Yes, he’s a brute,” thought Pierre, it doesn’t mean anything to him to kill a man, it must seem to him that everyone is afraid of him, he must be pleased with this. He must think that I am afraid of him too. And really I’m afraid of him,” thought Pierre, and again with these thoughts he felt something terrible and ugly rising in his soul. Dolokhov, Denisov and Rostov were now sitting opposite Pierre and seemed very cheerful. Rostov chatted merrily with his two friends, one of whom was a dashing hussar, the other a famous raider and rake, and occasionally glanced mockingly at Pierre, who at this dinner impressed with his concentrated, absent-minded, massive figure. Rostov looked at Pierre unkindly, firstly, because Pierre, in his hussar eyes, was a rich civilian, the husband of a beauty, generally a woman; secondly, because Pierre, in the concentration and distraction of his mood, did not recognize Rostov and did not respond to his bow. When they began to drink the sovereign's health, Pierre, lost in thought, did not get up and take the glass.
Geological events
213-145 million years ago, the single supercontinent Pangea began to break up into separate continental blocks. Shallow seas formed between them.
Climate
The climate in the Jurassic was highly variable.
From the Aalenian to the Bathonian ages, the climate was warm and humid. Then there was glaciation, which occupied most of the Callovian, Oxfordian and the beginning of the Kimmeridgian, and then the climate warmed again.
Vegetation
During the Jurassic, vast areas were covered with lush vegetation, primarily diverse forests. They mainly consisted of ferns and gymnosperms.
Land animals
One of the fossil creatures that combines characteristics of birds and reptiles is Archeopteryx. His skeleton was first discovered in the so-called lithographic shales in Germany. The discovery was made two years after the publication of Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species and became a strong argument in favor of the theory of evolution - it was initially considered a transitional form from reptiles to birds. But later it was also proposed that this was a dead-end branch of evolution, not directly related to real birds. Archeopteryx flew rather poorly (gliding from tree to tree), and was approximately the size of a crow. Instead of