France 1789 event. Key events of the great French revolution

home Prerequisites revolution . In 1788-1789 in France there was growing social political crisis . And the crisis in industry and trade, and the crop failure of 1788, and the bankruptcy of the state treasury, ruined by the wasteful spending of the court Louis XVI (1754-1793) were not the main causes of the revolutionary crisis. main reason

, which caused widespread dissatisfaction with the existing state of affairs that swept the entire country, was that the dominant feudal-absolutist system did not meet the tasks of the economic, social and political development of the country. Approximately 99 percent of the French population was so-called third estate

and only one percent of the privileged classes - the clergy and nobility.

The third estate was heterogeneous in class terms. It included the bourgeoisie, the peasantry, urban workers, artisans, and the poor. All representatives of the third estate were united by a complete lack of political rights and the desire to change the existing order. All of them did not want and could not continue to put up with the feudal-absolutist monarchy.

After a number of unsuccessful attempts, the king had to announce the convening of the Estates General - a meeting of representatives of the three classes that had not met for 175 years. The king and his entourage hoped, with the help of the Estates General, to calm public opinion and obtain the necessary funds to replenish the treasury. The Third Estate associated their convocation with hopes for political change in the country. From the very first days of the work of the Estates General, a conflict arose between the third estate and the first two over the order of meetings and voting. On June 17, the assembly of the third estate proclaimed itself the National Assembly, and on July 9 - the Constituent Assembly, thereby emphasizing its determination to establish a new social order and its constitutional foundations in the country. The king refused to recognize this act. Troops loyal to the king gathered in Versailles and Paris. The Parisians spontaneously rose up to fight. By the morning of July 14, most of the capital was already in the hands of the insurgent people. On July 14, 1789, an armed crowd freed the prisoners of the Bastille, a fortress-prison. This day was the beginning In two weeks the old order was destroyed throughout the country. Royal power was replaced by a revolutionary bourgeois administration, and began to form National Guard.

Despite the difference in class interests, the bourgeoisie, peasantry and urban plebeians united in the struggle against the feudal-absolutist system. The bourgeoisie led the movement. The general impulse was reflected in the adoption by the Constituent Assembly on August 26 Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen. IN It proclaimed the sacred and inalienable rights of man and citizen: personal freedom, freedom of speech, freedom of conscience, security and resistance to oppression. The right of property was declared just as sacred and inviolable, and a decree was promulgated declaring all church property national. The Constituent Assembly approved a new administrative division of the kingdom into 83 departments, destroyed the old class division and abolished all titles of nobility and clergy, feudal duties, class privileges, and abolished guilds. Proclaimed freedom of enterprise. The adoption of these documents meant that the reign of the feudal-absolutist monarchy was coming to an end.

Stages of the Revolution. However, during the Revolution, the alignment of political forces in the struggle for a new government system changed.

There are three stages in the history of the French Revolution; first – July 14, 1779 – August 10, 1792; second - August 10, 1772 - June 2, 1793; the third, highest stage of the revolution - June 2, 1793 - July 27/28, 1794.

At the first stage of the revolution, power was seized by the big bourgeoisie and the liberal nobility. They advocated a constitutional monarchy. Among them, the leading role was played M. Lafayette (1757-1834), A. Barnav (1761-1793), A. Lamet.

In September 1791, Louis XVI signed the constitution developed by the Constituent Assembly, after which a constitutional monarchy was established in the country; The Constituent Assembly dispersed and began to work Legislative Assembly.

The deep social upheavals taking place in the country increased friction between revolutionary France and the monarchical powers of Europe. England recalled its ambassador from Paris. The Russian Empress Catherine II (1729-1796) expelled the French attorney Genet. The Spanish ambassador in Paris, Iriarte, demanded his credentials back, and the Spanish government began military maneuvers along the Pyrenees. The Dutch ambassador was recalled from Paris.

Austria and Prussia entered into an alliance with each other and announced that they would prevent the spread of everything that threatened the monarchy in France and the security of all European powers. The threat of intervention forced France to be the first to declare war against them.

The war began with setbacks for the French troops. In connection with the difficult situation at the front, the Legislative Assembly proclaimed: “The Fatherland is in danger.” In the spring of 1792, a young sapper captain, poet and composer Claude Joseph Rouget de Lisle(1760-1836) in a fit of inspiration wrote the famous "Marseillaise" which later became the French national anthem.

On August 10, 1792, a popular uprising took place, led by the Paris Commune. The second stage of the revolution began. During this period, the Paris Commune became the body of Parisian city government, and in 1793-1794. was an important organ of revolutionary power. It was headed P.G. Chaumette (1763-1794), J.R. Eber(1757-1794), etc. The Commune closed many monarchist newspapers. It arrested former ministers and abolished property qualifications; all men over the age of 21 received voting rights.

Under the leadership of the Commune, crowds of Parisians began to prepare to storm the Tuileries Palace, where the king was staying. Without waiting for the assault, the king and his family left the palace and came to the Legislative Assembly.

The armed people captured the Tuileries Palace. The Legislative Assembly adopted a resolution to remove the king from power and convene a new supreme body of power - the National Convention (assembly). On August 11, 1792, the monarchy was virtually abolished in France.

To try the “criminals of August 10” (supporters of the king), the Legislative Assembly established an Extraordinary Tribunal.

On September 20 there were two most important events. French troops inflicted their first defeat on enemy troops at the Battle of Valmy. On the same day, a new, revolutionary Assembly, the Convention, opened in Paris.

At this stage of the revolution, the political leadership passed to Girondins, representing predominantly the republican commercial, industrial and agricultural bourgeoisie. The leaders of the Girondins were J.P. Brisso (1754-1793), P.V. Vergniaud (1753-1793), Zh.A. Condorcet(1743-1794). They constituted the majority in the Convention and were the right wing in the Assembly. They were opposed Jacobins, made up the left wing. Among them were M. Robespierre (1758-1794), J.J. Danton (1759-1794), J.P. Marat(1743-1793). The Jacobins expressed the interests of the revolutionary democratic bourgeoisie, which acted in alliance with the peasantry and plebeians.

A sharp struggle developed between the Jacobins and Girondins. The Girondins were satisfied with the results of the revolution, opposed the execution of the king and opposed the further development of the revolution.

The Jacobins considered it necessary to deepen the revolutionary movement.

But two decrees at the Convention were adopted unanimously: on the inviolability of property, on the abolition of the monarchy and the establishment of the Republic.

On September 21, the Republic (First Republic) was proclaimed in France. The motto of the Republic became the slogan "Freedom, equality and fraternity."

The question that worried everyone then was the fate of the arrested King Louis XVI. The convention decided to try him. On January 14, 1793, 387 deputies of the Convention out of 749 voted in favor of imposing the death penalty on the king. One of the deputies of the Convention, Barer, explained his participation in the vote this way: “This process is an act of public salvation or a measure of public safety...” On January 21, Louis XVI was executed, and in October 1793, Queen Marie Antoinette was executed.

The execution of Louis XVI served as a reason for the expansion of the anti-French coalition, which included England and Spain. Failures on the external front, deepening economic difficulties within the country, and rising taxes all shook the position of the Girondins. Unrest intensified in the country, pogroms and murders began, and on May 31 - June 2, 1793, a popular uprising took place.

The third, highest stage of the Revolution begins with this event. Power passed into the hands of radical strata of the bourgeoisie, which relied on the bulk of the urban population and the peasantry. At this moment, the grassroots had the greatest influence on the government. To save the revolution, the Jacobins considered it necessary to introduce an emergency regime - a Jacobin dictatorship took shape in the country.

The Jacobins recognized the centralization of state power as an indispensable condition. The Convention remained the highest legislative body. Subordinate to him was a government of 11 people - the Committee of Public Safety, headed by Robespierre. The Committee of Public Safety of the Convention was strengthened to combat counter-revolution, and revolutionary tribunals were activated.

The position of the new government was difficult. The war was raging. There were riots in most departments of France, especially the Vendée.

In the summer of 1793, Marat was killed by a young noblewoman, Charlotte Corday, which had a serious impact on the course of further political events.

The most important events of the Jacobins. In June 1793, the Convention adopted a new constitution, according to which France was declared a single and indivisible Republic; the supremacy of the people, equality of people in rights, and broad democratic freedoms were consolidated. The property qualification was abolished when participating in elections in government bodies; all men over the age of 21 received voting rights. Wars of conquest were condemned. This constitution was the most democratic of all French constitutions, but its implementation was delayed due to the national emergency.

The Committee of Public Safety carried out a number of important measures to reorganize and strengthen the army, thanks to which in a fairly short time the Republic managed to create not only a large, but also a well-armed army. And by the beginning of 1794, the war was transferred to enemy territory. The revolutionary government of the Jacobins, having led and mobilized the people, ensured victory over the external enemy - the troops of European monarchical states - Prussia, Austria, etc.

In October 1793, the Convention introduced a revolutionary calendar. The beginning new era September 22, 1792 was announced - the first day of the existence of the Republic. The month was divided into 3 decades, the months were named according to their characteristic weather, vegetation, fruits or agricultural work. Sundays were abolished. Instead of Catholic holidays, revolutionary holidays were introduced.

However, the Jacobin alliance was held together by the need for a joint struggle against the foreign coalition and counter-revolutionary revolts within the country. When victory was won on the fronts and the rebellions were suppressed, the danger of the restoration of the monarchy diminished, and a rollback of the revolutionary movement began. Internal divisions intensified among the Jacobins. Thus, since the autumn of 1793, Danton demanded the weakening of the revolutionary dictatorship, a return to constitutional order, and a renunciation of the policy of terror. He was executed. The lower classes demanded deeper reforms. Most of the bourgeoisie, dissatisfied with the policies of the Jacobins, who pursued a restrictive regime and dictatorial methods, switched to positions of counter-revolution, dragging along significant masses of peasants.

Not only ordinary bourgeois did this; the leaders Lafayette, Barnave, Lamet, as well as the Girondins, also joined the camp of the counter-revolution. The Jacobin dictatorship increasingly lost popular support.

Using terror as the only method of resolving contradictions, Robespierre prepared his own death and found himself doomed. The country and the entire people were tired of the horror of the Jacobin terror, and all its opponents united into a single bloc. A conspiracy against Robespierre and his supporters matured in the depths of the Convention.

9 Thermidor (July 27), 1794 to the conspirators J. Fouche(1759-1820), J.L. Tallien (1767-1820), P. Barras(1755-1829) managed to carry out a coup, arrest Robespierre, and overthrow the revolutionary government. “The Republic has perished, the kingdom of robbers has come,” these were last words Robespierre at the Convention. On the 10th of Thermidor, Robespierre, Saint-Just, Couthon and their closest associates were guillotined.

The conspirators, called Thermidorians, Now they used terror at their own discretion. They released their supporters from prison and imprisoned Robespierre's supporters. The Paris Commune was immediately abolished.

Results of the Revolution and its significance. In 1795, a new constitution was adopted, according to which power passed to the Directory and two councils - the Council of Five Hundred and the Council of Elders. November 9, 1799 The Council of Elders appointed a brigadier general Napoleon Bonaparte(1769-1821) commander of the army. On November 10, the Directory regime was “legally” liquidated, and a new state order was established: the Consulate, which existed from 1799 to 1804.

The main results of the Great French Revolution:

It consolidated and simplified the complex variety of pre-revolutionary forms of property.

The lands of many (but not all) nobles were sold to peasants in small plots (parcels) in installments over 10 years.

The revolution swept away all class barriers. Abolished the privileges of the nobility and clergy and introduced equal social opportunities for all citizens. All this contributed to the expansion of civil rights in all European countries ah, the introduction of constitutions in countries that did not have them before.

The revolution took place under the auspices of representative elected bodies: the National Constituent Assembly (1789-1791), the Legislative Assembly (1791-1792), and the Convention (1792-1794). This contributed to the development of parliamentary democracy, despite subsequent setbacks.

The revolution gave birth to a new government system - a parliamentary republic.

The state was now the guarantor of equal rights for all citizens.

Has been converted financial system: the class nature of taxes was abolished, the principle of their universality and proportionality to income or property was introduced. The budget was declared open.

If in France the process of capitalist development proceeded, albeit more slowly than in England, then in Eastern Europe the feudal mode of production and the feudal state were still strong and the ideas of the French Revolution found a weak echo there. In contrast to the epoch-making events taking place in France, the process of feudal reaction began in the East of Europe.

However, the greatest significance for Western civilization was The Great French Bourgeois Revolution. It dealt a powerful blow to feudal foundations, crushing them not only in France, but throughout Europe. French absolutism has been experiencing a serious crisis since the middle of the 18th century: constant financial difficulties, foreign policy failures, growing social tension - all this undermines the foundations of the state. Tax oppression, along with the preservation of old feudal duties, made the situation of the French peasantry unbearable. The situation was aggravated by objective factors: in the second half of the 80s, crop failures hit France, and the country was gripped by famine. The government was on the verge of bankruptcy. In the face of growing dissatisfaction with royal power, King Louis XVI of France convenes the States General (a medieval class-representative body that has not met in France since 1614). The Estates General, consisting of representatives of the clergy, nobility and the third estate (bourgeoisie and peasants), began their work 5 May 1780 d. Events began to take on an unexpected character for the authorities from the moment when deputies from the third estate achieved a joint discussion of issues and decision-making based on the real number of votes instead of estate-by-estate voting. All these appearnia marked the beginning of the revolution in France. After the States General proclaimed itself the National Assembly, that is, a body representing the interests of the entire nation, the king began to gather troops towards Paris. In response to this, a spontaneous uprising broke out in the city, during which on July 14 the fortress - the Bastille prison - was captured. This event became a symbol of the revolution that had begun and was a transition to open struggle with the ruling regime. Historians, as a rule, distinguish several stages during the French bourgeois revolution: early (summer 1789 - September 1794) - constitutional stage; the second (September 1792 - June 1793) - the period of the struggle between the Jacobins and Girondins; the third (June 1793 - July 1794) - the Jacobin dictatorship and the fourth (July 1794 - November 1799) - the decline of the revolution.

The first stage is characterized by the active activity of the National Assembly, which in August 1789 adopted a number of important decisions that destroyed the foundations of feudal society in France. According to acts of parliament, church tithes were abolished free of charge, the remaining duties of the peasants were subject to redemption, and the traditional privileges of the nobility were liquidated. 26 August 1789 jr. The “Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen” was adopted, within the framework of which the general principles of building a new society were proclaimed - natural human rights, equality of all before the law, the principle of popular sovereignty. Later, laws were issued that met the interests of the bourgeoisie and aimed at eliminating the guild system, internal customs barriers, and the confiscation and sale of church lands. By the autumn of 1791, the preparation of the first French Constitution, which proclaimed a constitutional monarchy in the country, was completed. The executive power remained in the hands of the king and the ministers appointed by him, and the legislative power was transferred to a unicameral Legislative Assembly, elections to which were two-stage and limited by property qualifications. However, in general, the loyal attitude towards the monarch demonstrated by the Constitution was significantly shaken after his unsuccessful escape abroad.

An important feature of the revolution in France was that the counter-revolution acted primarily from the outside. The French nobility, having fled the country, formed an “invasion army” in the German city of Koblenz, preparing to return the “old regime” by force. In April 1792, France's war against Austria and Prussia began. The defeats of French troops in the spring and summer of 1792 put the country under the threat of foreign occupation. Under these conditions, the position of radical circles of French society strengthened, not unreasonably accusing the king of having relations with Austria and Prussia and demanding the overthrow of the monarchy. On August 10, 1792, an uprising occurred in Paris; Louis XVI and his entourage were arrested. The Legislative Assembly changed the electoral law (elections became direct and general) and convened the National Convention; on September 22, 1792, France was proclaimed a republic. The first stage of the revolution has ended.

Events in France at the second stage of the revolutionary struggle were largely transitional in nature. In conditions of an acute domestic and foreign political crisis, the intensification of counter-revolutionary forces, economic difficulties associated with inflation and growing speculation, the leading position in the Convention is occupied by the most radical group of Jacobins. Unlike their opponents, the Girondins, the Jacobins, led by M. Robespierre, put the principle of revolutionary necessity above the principles of freedom and tolerance proclaimed in 1789. There is a struggle between these groups on all the most important issues. To eliminate the threat of monarchist conspiracies within the country, the Jacobins sought the conviction and execution of Louis XVI, which caused shock throughout monarchist Europe. On April 6, 1793, the Committee of Public Safety was created to fight against counter-revolution and wage war, which later became the main body of the new revolutionary government. The radicalization of French society, along with the unresolved economic problems, leads to a further deepening of the revolution. On June 2, 1793, the Jacobins, who had broad support from the lower social classes of Paris, managed to organize an uprising against the Girondins, during which the latter were destroyed. More than a year of Jacobin dictatorship began. The revised Constitution (June 24, 1793) completely abolished all feudal duties, turning peasants into free owners. Although formally all power was concentrated in the Convention, in reality it belonged to the Committee of Public Safety, which had virtually unlimited powers. With the Jacobins coming to power, France was swept by a wave of large-scale terror: thousands of people declared “suspicious” were thrown into prison and executed. This category included not only nobles and opposition supporters, but also the Jacobins themselves, who deviated from the main course determined by the leadership of the Committee of Public Safety in the person of Robespierre. In particular, when one of the most prominent Jacobins, J. Danton, in the spring of 1794, declared the need to end revolutionary terror and consolidate the results achieved by the revolution, he was recognized as an “enemy of the Revolution and the people” and executed. In an effort, on the one hand, to solve economic problems, and on the other, to expand their social base, the Jacobins, through emergency decrees, introduced a firm maximum price for food and the death penalty for profiteering in the country. Largely thanks to these measures, the French revolutionary army, recruited on the basis of universal conscription, in 1793 - 1794. was able to win a series of brilliant victories, repelling the offensive of the English, Prussian and Austrian invaders and localizing the dangerous royalist uprising in the Vendée (in northwestern France). However, the radicalism of the Jacobins, the incessant terror, and all sorts of restrictions in the sphere of business and trade caused growing discontent among broad sections of the bourgeoisie. The peasantry, ruined by constant "emergency" requisitions and suffering losses due to state price controls, also ceased to support the Jacobins. The party's social base was steadily shrinking. The deputies of the Convention, who were not satisfied and frightened by the cruelty of Robespierre, organized an anti-Jacobin conspiracy. On July 27, 1794 (9 Thermidor according to the revolutionary calendar), he was arrested and executed. The Jacobin dictatorship fell.

The Thermidorian coup did not mean the end of the revolution and the restoration of the “old order”. It only symbolized the rejection of the most radical option for the reconstruction of society and the transfer of power into the hands of more moderate circles, whose goal was to protect the interests of the new elite that had already been formed during the years of the revolution. In 1795, a new Constitution was drafted. The Legislative Assembly was created again; executive power passed into the hands of the Directory, consisting of five members. In the interests of the big bourgeoisie, all emergency economic decrees of the Jacobins were canceled.

In the revolution, conservative tendencies were increasingly felt, with the goal of consolidating the status quo that had developed by 1794. During the years of the Directory, France continued to wage successful wars, which gradually turned from revolutionary into aggressive. The grandiose Italian and Egyptian campaigns were undertaken (1796 - 1799), during which the young talented general Napoleon Bonaparte gained enormous popularity. The role of the army, on which the Directory regime relied, is constantly increasing. In turn, the authority of the government, which had discredited itself by oscillations between monarchists and Jacobins, as well as open money-grubbing and corruption, was steadily declining. November 9 (18 Brumaire) 1799 occurred coup d'etat, headed by Napoleon Bonaparte. The regime established during the coup acquired the character of a military dictatorship. The French bourgeois revolution is over.

In general, the bourgeois revolutions of the 17th and 18th centuries put an end to the feudal order in Europe. The political, economic, and social appearance of world civilization has undergone dramatic changes. Western society transformed from feudal to bourgeois.

As you well know, this year in Unified State Exam assignments in history there will be those that test knowledge of World History. Moving in line with innovations, we have already discussed one of the topics - Today we will talk about the Great French Revolution.

From school course In history, it is the history of Russia that is studied in most detail. The material that has to be studied in the fifth to eighth grades disappears from the children’s heads as soon as they come school break. And this is no wonder: there is no point in teaching World History if no one really asks about it. And here it is for you: in Unified State Exam tests in history they began to test knowledge of this history.

It is clear that if we have studied the uprisings of Razin, Bulavin, Pugachev, the Decembrists... it will seem to any student that the history of Europe is history real civilization, and there, in Europe, those horrors described in The Captain’s Daughter certainly do not exist... In reality, everything is different: the history of Russia is only a special case of world history. And when you start studying this history, you understand that Russia was destined for only one role out of many.

For example, the Great French Revolution was one of the first bourgeois revolutions in Europe. Actually, it is in this character of hers that her reasons lie. Let's look at it in more detail.

The bourgeois character of the Great French Revolution

According to Karl Marx's class theory, there are social classes. A social class is a social association that has its place and role in the production of goods and services. Accordingly, there is a class of feudal lords - land owners who own the most important means production - it is on the ground that food can only be grown. There was also a class of peasants, bourgeoisie and others in France.

There was class antagonism between classes—contradictions in class interests. For example, what class contradictions can there be between a feudal lord and a peasant? The feudal lord wants to exploit him mercilessly and, if possible, forever. At the same time, this peasant would be paid a pittance for his work! The feudal lord then sells the crop and makes a huge profit. By the way, if you don’t know what feudalism is, then take a look.

The peasant has the exact opposite interests: he wants to become the owner of the land himself, so as not to depend on the feudal lord, in order to sell the results of his labor himself.

Eugene Delacroix. Freedom leading the people. 1830 La Liberté guidant le peuple Oil on canvas

There is also the bourgeoisie - which again depends on the feudal nobles, the royal power... The state, represented by the nobles, the king and the clergy, looked at the peasantry and bourgeoisie as a cash cow. And this went on for centuries. The only difference is that at the end of the 18th century there was no serfdom in France.

By the way, at the end of the post I have prepared extremely funny material for you about what happens to your cows at different social systems and ideologies :)

But there were classes, class restrictions in favor of only three players: the king, the clergy and the nobility. Meanwhile, the bourgeoisie end of the XVIII century in France it became a powerful social force. The bourgeois realized that they wanted not only to be a cash cow for the authorities, but also to influence this power itself.

In this character lies the main reason for the Great French Revolution: the transition from a feudal formation to a capitalist formation. From a system in which the ruling class was the landowning nobles to one in which the bourgeoisie - entrepreneurs, artisans, traders - became the ruling class. This topic is extensive, and in the future we will cover it from different sides.

Contributing Causes of the French Revolution

Thus, the first cause of the revolution the fact that in France by the end of the 18th century class contradictions intensified.

The second reason: socio-economic crisis - decline in production, growth in lending, insolvency of the bulk of the population, crop failures, famine.

The third reason for the French Revolution: inability of the royal power to solve urgent problems social contradictions. As soon as Louis XVI wanted to carry out the necessary changes in favor of the third estate (the bulk of the population of France), he was immediately criticized by the clergy and nobility. And vice versa. Plus, the so-called case of Queen Marie Antoinette’s necklace played a role.

In general, all The World History discussed in my author's video course « »

Well, now, the promised jokes:

Libertarianism.
You have two cows. They graze and milk on their own.

Neighborhood community.
You have two cows. Your neighbors help you take care of them, and you share milk with your neighbors.

Clan society.
The headman takes everything. But you never had cows.

Feudalism.
You have two cows. Your feudal owner takes ¾ of the milk from you.

Christian democracy.
You have two cows. You keep one for yourself and give the other to your neighbor.

Socialism (ideal).
You have two cows. The government takes them and puts them in a stall with other comrades' cows. You must take care of all the cows. The government gives you as much milk as you need.

Socialism (bureaucratic).
You have two cows. The government takes them and places them on a farm with other citizens' cows. They are looked after by former chicken coop owners. You must care for chickens that have been taken away from chicken coop owners. The government gives you as much milk and eggs as the regulations say you need.

Communism (ideal):
You have two cows. The state takes both of them and gives you as much milk as you need.

Communism:
You have 2 cows. The government takes both cows and gives you some milk.

Stalin's communism.
You have two cows. You're oblivious report on them, but the government takes all the milk for itself. Sometimes it leaves you some milk.

Dictatorship.
You have two cows. The government takes both of them and shoots you. Milk is banned.

Totalitarianism.
You have two cows. The government takes them both, denies their existence, and drafts you into the army. Milk is prohibited.

Fascism.
You have two cows. The state takes them both and sells you a certain amount of milk (if you are Jewish, it doesn’t give it to you)

Nazism.
You have two cows. The state takes them both and shoots you.

Bureaucracy.
You have two cows. The state tells you what you have the right to feed them, when and how you can milk them. It prohibits you from selling milk. After some time, the state takes both cows, kills one of them, milks the other and pours the milk into the river. You are then required to submit 16 notarized accounting forms for each missing cow.

Democracy – 1.
You have two cows. Your neighbors decide who gets the milk.

Democracy – 2.
You have two cows and everyone is telling you how to milk them. If you milk them in any other way, you will be sued for cruelty to animals.

Electoral democracy.
You have two cows. Your neighbors choose someone to come to you and tell you who will get the milk.

American style democracy.
The government promises you two cows if you vote for it. After the elections, the president is impeached for speculating on the future of cows. The press is inflating the hype around the “Cow Scandal”.

Liberalism.
You have two cows. The government doesn't care if you exist, let alone your cows.

1. Describe the historical conditions in France that developed by the end of the 18th century. Fill the table.

Historical conditions in France on the eve of the revolution were difficult. The king was pushed to convene the Estates General by both social and economic, as well as political reasons. Despite the fact that in North America France's ally won, but France lost the war as a whole. The main thing is that France failed to seize significant possessions in the Caribbean region, and it was through them that the government hoped to cover military expenses thanks to the very profitable sugar trade at that time. Largely thanks to this, a revolutionary situation arose in the kingdom, caused, first of all, by economic reasons. However, they, naturally, were not the only ones.

2. For what purpose did the king convene the Estates General? How did the conflict between the king and the deputies develop?

The king convened the Estates General to approve the introduction of new taxes. Perhaps he wanted to propose the abolition of pensions and other payments to aristocrats, relying in this decision on the authority of all classes. But he did not have time to make such a proposal. The Estates General showed disobedience even when clarifying the question of the voting procedure: whether the decision would be made by the number of votes of the chambers (then the Third Estate was losing to the two highest ones), or by the number of deputy votes (representatives of the Third Estate made up half of the Estates General). In response to the king's order to disperse, the deputies refused to do so. Representatives of the Third Estate, together with some deputies from the two highest ones, formed the National Assembly on June 17, and the Constituent Assembly on July 9.

3. Highlight and characterize the main stages of the Great French Revolution.

Stages of the revolution.

The first period is characterized by the active struggle of the court and the Constituent Assembly with the victory of the latter. Marked by numerous victories of the revolution. Ended in storm royal palace Tuileries and the overthrow of the monarchy. At the same time, differences emerged in the revolutionary camp, which were most clearly manifested during the next period.

Characterized by the struggle between radical and moderate forces in the revolutionary camp. At the same time, the methods of struggle became more and more bloody, and it was then that the death sentence became a common means of political struggle. At the same time, on external borders Wars with interventionists and immigrants intensified, which escalated the situation within the country.

Jacobin dictatorship. The period of the most radical transformations and at the same time the most massive terror.

Directory Board. In many ways, a return to pre-revolutionary luxury and part of the pre-revolutionary order, but the hosts at this new celebration of life were those who had become rich during the previous stages. Almost the end of the revolution.

4. What was the significance of the adoption of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen? What ideas formed its basis?

The main ideas of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen were:

Universal equality of rights;

State guarantees of natural rights;

Classless society;

The power is based only on the will of the people;

Freedom of personality and will, freedom of expression.

The Declaration was the first practical implementation of many of the ideas of the Enlightenment. It laid the foundation for almost all subsequent reforms during the revolution. To this day, the Declaration is one of the foundations of French legislation.

5. Why did the reforms of the first stage of the revolution not remove the contradictions in French society?

Many especially the economic demands of the poorest sections of the population were not satisfied. At the same time, the solution to these issues caused opposition from the propertied layers of the revolutionary camp. Thus, significant contradictions emerged in the revolutionary movement itself, without resolution of which the further program of action seemed vague. This conflict also reflected the contradiction in society as a whole, no longer between the privileged and the unprivileged, but between the haves and the have-nots.

6. Indicate the internal and external factors that contributed to the deepening of revolutionary processes.

TO external factors refers to the war between France and a number of European anti-French coalitions, the next offensives of their armies.

Internal factors are much more varied:

An unsuccessful attempt by Louis XVI and his family to flee abroad;

Public debates in political clubs that fueled passions;

Frequent changes of governments by the king;

7. Assess the policies of the Jacobin dictatorship. What methods did the Jacobins use to overcome economic and political difficulties?

Of course, the darkest page of the Jacobin dictatorship is the revolutionary terror, which claimed many lives. But this was not the only mistake on the part of the authorities of the First Republic. In fact, they were unable to offer solutions to the problems facing France: the country's economy was collapsing, its money was incredibly devalued, the poor were not living better, despite executions and confiscations, foreign policy problems were far from being resolved. At the same time, it was actually possible to solve many problems in the countryside and suppress counter-revolutionary protests. However, this did not remove urgent crisis phenomena for the state from the agenda.

8. Describe the internal and external policies of the Directory. Why did the Thermidorian regime lose its support in the country?

In foreign policy the Directory achieved great success thanks to the demonstration of its much less revolutionary nature. In 1795, peace was concluded with Prussia and Spain. Holland, as a result of the victories of the French troops, was turned into the puppet Batavian Republic in the same year. In the following years, Directory commanders, including Napoleon Bonaparte, won a number of impressive victories in battles against the rest of the coalition. Therefore it can be argued that foreign policy turned out to be successful: the position of France stabilized and began to improve noticeably.

The internal policies of the Directory were more controversial. On the one hand, it was possible to stabilize the economic situation by repealing the “maximum” law and other directive measures of the Jacobins. On the other hand, this caused a sharp rise in prices and a sharp deterioration in the lives of the poor. It was also important that the country's leaders openly abandoned revolutionary ideals and publicly demonstrated their wealth. Such a government cannot count on popular love.

9. What was the state structure and administration of France under the constitution of 1799? How did Napoleon gradually strengthen his power? How did he manage to reconcile different layers of French society?

According to the new constitution, the separation of powers, municipal power, independence of courts, freedom of speech, etc. were actually abolished. The government of the country was subordinate to a rigid vertical of power headed by three consuls. Initially, General Bonaparte was just the first of these consuls, and therefore became the only one for life. The rest of the system did not need to be changed because it was already subordinate to the consuls. Therefore, when Napoleon crowned himself emperor in 1804, he only accepted the title; in fact, the state had already been a monarchy.

Different layers of French society were tried on in many ways even before Napoleon, during stubborn struggle during the revolution - the dissatisfied were simply destroyed or immigrated. As a result of the revolutionary wars, there was no force left in the country that could compete with the army (especially since, in conditions of universal conscription, it truly represented most population), and Napoleon had unquestioned authority in the army thanks to his victories.

10. What impact did the Great French Revolution have on European countries?

Initially, the revolution was greeted with enthusiasm by some enlightened circles in Europe. Over time, the ruling circles of the region also spoke out - the radicalism of the revolution frightened them, which is why a number of coalitions of European states were organized with the aim of suppressing the popular movement in France by force of arms. At the same time, Paris actively promoted the expansion of the revolution to other countries, proclaiming the slogan “Peace to the huts, war to the palaces.” Such calls sometimes met with warm responses in some circles, for example, Holland, Italy, etc. But pro-French sympathies never played a decisive role; a particular territory supported France only after the victory of French troops there. Over time, the population considered the occupying nature of these troops. During the Napoleonic Wars, cases of popular hatred and attitudes towards French troops simply as invaders are already known. Such sentiments were especially evident in Spain, where a real guerrilla war unfolded. It was under the influence of these anti-occupation sentiments that the national self-awareness of some peoples clearly manifested itself, and among others it received a powerful impetus.

11. Compare the course, stages of development and results of the English bourgeois revolution and the Great French Revolution. What similarities and differences can you identify?

In both revolutions there is a lot common features. Their stages were different because they were determined by the specific situation, but the course revealed many similarities. In both cases, the king was opposed by the legislative authorities, and both losing kings were executed according to court sentences. Both revolutions established republics. Both revolutions involved the struggle of different parties within the revolutionary camp and the rise to power of a successful commander. But in England and France these events took place in a different order.

However, the differences between the revolutions were more significant. In England, parliament acted within the framework of religious Protestant ideology. At the same time, it was initially intended only to consolidate the original rights of parliament; the idea of ​​​​restructuring the state arose already during the revolution. French revolutionaries initially acted within the framework of a secular ideology and immediately sought a reasonable reorganization of society within the framework of the ideas proposed by the Enlightenment. That is why only the Great French Revolution had followers; it was precisely this that guided the entire 19th century by those who sought transformation political system in their countries.

One of the main causes of the French Revolution of 1789 was the financial crisis. In the middle of the 18th century, France was involved in a series of devastating wars, so that there was almost no money left in the state treasury.

The only one in an effective way The replenishment of the treasury could come from taxation of the aristocracy, clergy and nobility, who were traditionally exempt from taxes.

But they, naturally, resisted with all their might a change in their financial situation. Although King Louis XVI had absolute power, he did not dare to use this power in relation to upper classes, because he was afraid of being accused of despotism. In an effort to find a way out of this extremely difficult situation and gain the approval of the people, the monarch decided to convene the States General of France for the first time since 1614.

The Estates General were supreme body class representation of the country. They consisted of three "states" or estates: the clergy (First Estate), the nobility (Second Estate) and the rest of the population, which included the majority of the French, namely the middle classes and peasantry (Third Estate). A meeting of the Estates General took place in May 1789, with each estate presenting its own grievances.

What the government did not expect at all was huge amount complaints from the (Third Estate), which mainly consisted of representatives of the already formed bourgeois class, the new bourgeoisie were dissatisfied with the fact that they did not have the political rights that they could count on due to their material and social status.

The tension increased further due to the fact that there were many disagreements over the voting procedure: whether to grant the right to vote to each estate, as tradition prescribed (in this case, there would be more privileged estates, and the Third Estate would remain in the minority), or to vote each representative can separately (in this case, the majority would receive the Third Estate).

Under pressure from the people, Louis XVI was inclined to allow individual representatives to vote, but at the same time he began to gather troops to Versailles and Paris, as if he had already repented of having yielded to the Third Estate and was preparing to repel a possible blow.

The threat of an attack by the royal army on Paris led to the fact that the townspeople found themselves in the thick of things. A group of electors, who constituted the final deputies from Paris for the Estates General, occupied the Town Hall and proclaimed themselves the city government, or Commune.

The Commune organized a people's militia, which later became known as the National Guard. The National Guard was supposed to maintain order in the city, which had by this time become restless, and prepare the capital for defense against attacks by royal troops. However, the Guard had to intervene much earlier, since on July 14 a crowd of angry Parisians headed to the arsenal of the Bastille prison in order to obtain weapons for the city detachments, and this campaign was crowned with success.

The taking of the Bastille played a major role in the development of the revolutionary process and became a symbol of victory over the oppressive forces of the monarchy. Although the consequences of the revolution had implications for the whole of France and even for Europe, the most significant events took place mainly in Paris.

Finding themselves at the epicenter of the revolution, ordinary residents of the capital, the so-called sans-culottes (literally “people without short pants,” that is, men who, unlike aristocrats and other rich people, wore long pants) became the main actors revolution. They formed revolutionary units, which became the main driving force at critical moments of the Revolution.

While the bourgeois deputies were mainly concerned with political reforms, the sans-culottes put forward clear economic demands: control over pricing, providing the city with food, and so on. With these demands they took to the streets and thereby founded a tradition of street revolutionary protests that has survived to this day.

Creation of the National Assembly

While the king was gathering troops to Versailles, representatives of the Third Estate proclaimed themselves the National Assembly and invited the clergy and nobility to join them (which some nobles and part of the lower clergy did).

Most of the Assembly would probably agree to constitutional reform limiting the power of the monarchy in the English manner. But the real power of the deputies was determined mainly by their ability to prevent the threat of a popular uprising in Paris. The king was forced to recognize the National Assembly, which in August 1789 adopted the Declaration of the Rights of Man, abolishing the feudal privileges of the old regime.

There were rumors in the city about counter-revolutionary sentiments at the court at Versailles, so in October special squad Parisians went to Versailles and obliged the king to return to Paris, after which the monarch was placed in the Tuileries Palace, where he actually lived as a prisoner. In 1791, the monarch secretly left the city in the hope of fleeing abroad, but he was caught in Varennes and brought back to Paris in disgrace.

Unlike the king, many nobles managed to leave the country, and they began to persuade foreign countries to oppose the revolutionary government. Some members of the National Assembly believed that in order to unite the nation and for the cause of the revolution, a war should be started, which would help spread the ideals of the revolution outside the country.

Following the initiative of the Girondin faction (a group of deputies from the Gironde region around Bordeaux), the Assembly decided to declare war on certain states in order to protect the Revolution. In 1792, France declared war on Austria, and a series of French Revolutionary Wars began. Since things were going pretty badly at the front, moderate sentiments gradually gave way to more radical ones.

Calls began to be heard to overthrow the king and establish a republic. The National Assembly split, and the Parisians had to take power into their own hands. In August 1792, the sans-culottes marched to the Town Hall, established their rebel Commune and imprisoned the king. Under pressure from the new Commune, the National Assembly agreed to dissolve, and to adopt a new, already republican constitution, announced elections for a new Convention.

There is no doubt that the people's militias played important role in the establishment of the republic, but at the same time they were responsible for one of the most brutal atrocities of the Revolution, the September massacres of 1792, during which about 1,200 people, prisoners of Parisian prisons, were brutally killed ( Conciergerie, La Force and others).

Among those killed were rebellious priests and political prisoners, as well as Marie Antoinette's closest friend, Princess Lamballe. Later that month, the first meeting of the Convention was held, at which the monarchy was abolished, a republic was established, and the king was put on trial for treason.

Louis XVI was sentenced to death and in January 1793 he was guillotined at the Place de la Révolution (now Place de la Concorde). The execution of the king forced the royalists to unite both within France itself and beyond its borders, and a vast military coalition was formed against revolutionary France. At that time the convention was torn apart internal contradictions, two main factions emerged: the Girondins and the more radical Jacobins.

The moderate Girondins gradually gave way, and as a result, in June 1793, this faction ceased to exist. The convention established military dictatorship and carried out his policies with the help of various bodies, including the National Security Committee, headed by Maximilien Robespierre.

Justifying its actions on grounds of public necessity, the National Security Committee began the physical destruction of “enemies of the people”; this period went down in the history of the Revolution under the name “ Great Terror" Among the first victims of the Terror was Queen Marie Antoinette, who calmly and with dignity ascended the guillotine in October 1793.

Over the next few months, about 2,600 more people were executed, including many moderate revolutionaries, such as Danton, who, going to his death, remained true to himself and uttered these proud words: “First of all, do not forget to show the people my head , because she deserves to be looked at.” Together with him, the romantic-idealist Camille Desmoulins ascended the scaffold, who on July 12, 1789, having climbed onto a table in a cafe in the Palais Royal, called on people to take up arms.

The Age of Terror ended in July 1794, when Robespierre, who had already proved himself a tyrant, was arrested by members of the Convention, who feared, not without reason, that the weapons of Terror might be directed against themselves, and then shared the fate of those people whom he condemned to death .?

After the end of the Terror, the country returned to a more moderate policy, and power was placed in the hands of a five-member Directory, which, unfortunately, showed weakness and a tendency to corruption. A period of instability ensued, during which there was constant fighting between royalists and revolutionaries. The ruling class needed strong leader, which would pass a constitution giving more power to the executive branch.

And such a leader was found, he became General Napoleon Bonaparte, who had already proven himself to be an outstanding commander on the battlefields of Italy and Austria and easily suppressed the royalist rebellion in Paris in October 1795. In November 1799 Napoleon overthrew the Directory and thereby carried out a coup d'état. In 1802, Napoleon appointed himself First Consul for life, and in 1804 he proclaimed himself Emperor of France.

More photos of the French Revolution here: Photo gallery

The 18th century is considered to be the century of the Great French Revolution. The overthrow of the monarchy, revolutionary movements and vivid examples of terror eclipsed even the bloody events in their cruelty October revolution 1917. The French prefer to bashfully remain silent and in every possible way romanticize this period in their history. The French Revolution is difficult to overestimate. A striking example how the most bloodthirsty and scary beast, dressed in the robes of Freedom, Equality and Brotherhood, is ready to sink his fangs into anyone, and his name is Revolution.

Prerequisites for the start of the revolution: socio-economic and political crisis

Upon ascending the throne in 1774, he appointed Robert Turgot as Comptroller General of Finance, but a wide range of reforms proposed by this politician were rejected. The aristocracy strenuously clung to its privileges, and all extortions and duties fell heavily on the shoulders of the third estate, whose representatives in France numbered 90%.

In 1778, Turgot was replaced by Necker. He cancels serfdom in the royal domains, torture during interrogations limited court expenses, but these measures were only a drop in the bucket. Absolutism did not allow capitalist relations to develop in society. Therefore, a change in economic formations was only a matter of time. There was a deepening economic crisis, expressed in rising prices in the absence of production growth. Inflation, which hit the poorest segments of the population hard, was one of the catalysts that spurred the growth of revolutionary sentiment in society.

The US War of Independence also set an excellent example, inspiring hope in the revolutionary-minded French. If we talk briefly about the Great French Revolution (and about the preconditions that were ripe), then we should also note the political crisis in France. The aristocracy considered itself located between a rock and a hard place - the king and the people. Therefore, she fiercely blocked all innovations that, in her opinion, threatened liberties and preferences. The king understood that at least something had to be done: France could no longer live in the old way.

Convocation of the Estates General on May 5, 1789

All three classes pursued their own goals and objectives. The king hoped to avoid economic collapse by reforming the tax system. The aristocracy wanted to maintain its position; it clearly did not need reforms. The common people, or the third estate, hoped that they would become the platform where their demands would finally be heard. Swan, crayfish and pike...

Fierce disputes and discussions, thanks to the enormous support of the people, were successfully resolved in favor of the third estate. Of the 1,200 parliamentary seats, 610, or the majority, went to representatives of the broad masses. And soon they had the opportunity to show their political strength. On June 17, at the ball arena, representatives of the people, taking advantage of the confusion and vacillation among the clergy and aristocracy, announced the creation of the National Assembly, vowing not to disperse until a Constitution was developed. The clergy and part of the nobles supported them. The Third Estate showed that it must be taken into account.

Storming of the Bastille

The beginning of the Great French Revolution was marked by a significant event - the storming of the Bastille. The French celebrate this day as National holiday. As for historians, their opinions are divided: there are skeptics who believe that there was no capture: the garrison itself voluntarily surrendered, and everything happened because of the frivolity of the crowd. We need to clarify some points right away. There was a capture, and there were victims. Several people tried to lower the bridge, and it crushed these unfortunate people. The garrison could resist, it had guns and experience. There was not enough food, but history knows examples heroic defenses fortresses.

Based on the documents, we have the following: from the Minister of Finance Necker to the deputy commandant of the Pujot fortress, everyone spoke out about the abolition of the Bastille, expressing the general opinion. The fate of the famous fortress-prison was predetermined - it would have been demolished anyway. But history does not know the subjunctive mood: on July 14, 1789, the Bastille was stormed, and this marked the beginning of the Great French Revolution.

A constitutional monarchy

The determination of the people of France forced the government to make concessions. City municipalities were transformed into a commune - an independent revolutionary government. A new one was accepted state flag- the famous French tricolor. The National Guard was led by de Lafayette, who became famous in the American War of Independence. The National Assembly began forming a new government and drafting a Constitution. On August 26, 1789, the “Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen” was adopted - the most important document in the history of the French Revolution. It declared fundamental rights and freedoms new France. Now everyone had the right to freedom of conscience and resistance to oppression. He could openly express his opinion and be protected from attacks on private property. Now everyone was equal before the law and had equal obligations to taxation. the French Revolution was expressed in every line of this progressive document. While most European countries continued to suffer from social inequality generated by the remnants of the Middle Ages.

And although the reforms of 1789-1791 many things changed radically, the adoption of a law to suppress any uprising was directed against the poor. It was also forbidden to form unions and conduct strikes. The workers have been deceived again.

On September 3, 1891, a new Constitution was adopted. It gave the right to vote only to a limited number of representatives of the middle strata. A new Legislative Assembly was convened, whose members could not be re-elected. All this contributed to the radicalization of the population and the possibility of the emergence of terror and despotism.

Threat of external invasion and fall of the monarchy

England was afraid that with the adoption of advanced economic reforms France's influence would increase, so all efforts were made to prepare for the invasion of Austria and Prussia. Patriotic French people supported the call to defend the Motherland. The French National Guard advocated the removal of the king's power, the creation of a republic and the election of a new national convention. The Duke of Brunswick issued a manifesto outlining his intentions: to invade France and destroy the revolution. After they learned about him in Paris, the events of the Great French Revolution began to develop rapidly. On August 10, the rebels went to the Tuileries and, having defeated the Swiss Guards, arrested the king's family. The illustrious persons were placed in the Temple fortress.

War and its impact on the revolution

If we briefly characterize the Great French Revolution, it should be noted that the mood in French society was explosive mixture out of suspicion, fear, mistrust and bitterness. Lafayette fled, the border fortress of Longwy surrendered without a fight. Purges, arrests and mass executions began on the initiative of the Jacobins. The majority in the Convention were Girondins - they organized the defense and even won victories at first. Their plans were extensive: from the liquidation of the Paris Commune to the capture of Holland. By that time, France was at war with almost all of Europe.

Personal disputes and squabbles, a drop in living standards and an economic blockade - under the influence of these factors, the influence of the Girondins began to fade, which the Jacobins took advantage of. The betrayal of General Dumouriez served as an excellent reason to accuse the government of aiding its enemies and remove him from power. Danton headed the Committee of Public Safety - executive branch concentrated in the hands of the Jacobins. The significance of the Great French Revolution and the ideals that it stood for have lost all meaning. Terror and violence swept through France.

Apogee of terror

France was going through one of the most difficult periods in its history. Her army was retreating, the southwest, under the influence of the Girondins, rebelled. In addition, supporters of the monarchy became more active. The death of Marat shocked Robespierre so much that he only thirsted for blood.

The functions of the government were transferred to the Committee of Public Safety - a wave of terror swept through France. After the adoption of the decree of June 10, 1794, the accused were deprived of the right to defense. The results of the Great French Revolution during the Jacobin dictatorship - approximately 35 thousand died and over 120 thousand fled into exile.

The policy of terror so consumed its creators that the republic, having become hated, perished.

Napoleon Bonaparte

France was drained of blood civil war, and the revolution weakened its pressure and grip. Everything changed: now the Jacobins themselves were persecuted and persecuted. Their club was closed, and the Committee of Public Safety gradually lost power. The Convention, defending the interests of those who enriched themselves during the years of the revolution, on the contrary, strengthened its positions, but its position remained precarious. Taking advantage of this, the Jacobins staged a rebellion in May 1795, which, although it was harshly suppressed, it accelerated the dissolution of the Convention.

Moderate Republicans and Girondins created the Directory. France is mired in corruption, debauchery and a complete breakdown of morals. One of the most prominent figures in the Directory was Count Barras. He noticed Napoleon Bonaparte and promoted him through the ranks, sending him on military campaigns.

The people finally lost faith in the Directory and its political leaders, which Napoleon took advantage of. On November 9, 1799, the consular regime was proclaimed. All executive power was concentrated in the hands of the first consul - Napoleon Bonaparte. The functions of the other two consuls were only advisory in nature. The revolution is over.

Fruits of the revolution

The results of the Great French Revolution were expressed in a change in economic formations and changes in socio-economic relations. The church and aristocracy finally lost their former power and influence. France embarked on the economic path of capitalism and progress. Its people, seasoned in battle and adversity, possessed the most powerful combat-ready army of that time. The significance of the Great French Revolution is great: the ideals of equality and dreams of freedom were formed in the minds of many European peoples. But at the same time, there was also a fear of new revolutionary upheavals.