Hypothesis description. Hypothesis of legal norm. What can be said about the concept of hypothesis and types

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Hypothesis (dictionary of logic terms) (from the Greek hipothesis - basis, assumption) a-position put forward as a preliminary, conditional explanation of a certain phenomenon or group of phenomena; assumption about the existence of some phenomenon. G. may concern the existence of an object, the reasons for its occurrence, its properties and connections, its past and future, etc. Proposed on the basis of certain knowledge about the range of phenomena under study, G. plays the role of a guiding principle that directs and corrects further observations and experiments. G. is a necessary link in development scientific knowledge . As conjectural, probable knowledge, not yet proven logically and not so confirmed by experience as to be considered reliable, G. is neither true nor false. One can say about it that it is uncertain, lies between truth and falsehood. Having received confirmation, G. turns into truth and ceases to exist. A refuted hypothesis becomes a false position and again ceases to be a hypothesis. A hypothesis is put forward in science to solve some specific problem: explaining new factual data, eliminating the contradiction between a theory and negative experimental results, etc. The process of substantiating a hypothesis, during which it is either rejected or transformed into a reliable position (an expanded theory, relating to a wide range of phenomena, becomes a scientific theory); in principle, it does not differ from the substantiation of any theoretical position. The most methods of substantiating geography can be divided into theoretical and empirical, taking into account, however, that the difference between them is relative, just as the distinction between theoretical and empirical knowledge itself is relative. Theoretical methods cover the study of geometry for consistency, empirical verifiability, applicability to the entire class of phenomena being studied, its deducibility from more general provisions, and its approval through a restructuring of the theory within which it was put forward. Empirical methods include direct observation of the phenomena assumed by hypothesis (if possible) and confirmation in experience of the consequences arising from it. One of the criteria for the validity of a statement is its agreement with the factual material on the basis of which and to explain which it was put forward; G. must also correspond to the laws, theories, etc. established in science. This is the so-called. consistency condition. Being fundamentally important, it does not mean, however, that it is necessary to demand from G. a complete, passive adaptation to what is considered a fact at the moment of its nomination. Facts are not only the starting point for constructing a hypothesis, but also a guide to action and possible adjustments to both the assumption being put forward and the facts themselves. Under certain conditions, even hypothesis that contradicts well-established facts is legitimate: by tearing facts out of the usual theoretical context, it forces you to look at them from a new point of view and increases the likelihood of discovering in them something that previously went unnoticed. All this also applies to the coordination of G. with the theoretical positions established in science: the conformity of G. with them is reasonable as long as it is aimed at establishing a better, more effective theory, and not simply at preserving the old theory. The second necessary condition for the validity of a statement is its verifiability, which means that the statement must, in principle, allow for the possibility of refutation and the possibility of confirmation. G., which does not meet this requirement, does not indicate the path for further research. This is the assumption about the existence of supernatural objects that do not reveal themselves, or G. about a false life force

Hypothesis (psychological dictionary)

Hypothesis (from the Greek hypothesis - basis, assumption) is an assumption about individual properties of the surrounding world, arising as a factor in orienting activity - and conditioned by the individual’s existing subjective picture of the world. If the solution to the problem is unknown to the individual, then at the beginning very general hypotheses are formed, by testing which a more specific direction of search is established. General hypotheses do not necessarily have to be theoretical concepts - the process of putting forward hypotheses and the nature of the hypotheses themselves can be intuitive, without reflecting on logical grounds.

Statistical hypothesis

A statistical hypothesis is an assumption about certain empirical characteristics of the distribution in a given population.

Topic VI. Hypothesis

Formal logic studies not only the forms of abstract thinking, but also the forms of development of scientific knowledge. These are the facts of science, the scientific problem born from the need to explain them, the initial solution to the problem in the form of a hypothesis, its confirmation or refutation in the course of proof, and, finally, the theory that formulates the laws.

There is a deep internal connection between all these forms. Each subsequent form includes the most important results of the previous one. For clarity, let's look at the following diagram:

Fd - facts of reality to which human knowledge is directed

Fn - facts of science (reflection of facts of reality in science)

P - problem statement (knowledge of ignorance, conscious ignorance)

G - putting forward a hypothesis (scientific assumption about the existence of some unknown phenomenon, its causes, structure, functions)

D - scientific proof (the process of substantiating a hypothesis) T - new theoretical knowledge

As can be seen from the diagram, The theoretical stage of knowledge begins with a hypothesis, This is precisely what determines its place in scientific knowledge, and hence our interest in its logical characteristics.

Logical characteristics of the hypothesis

Cognition of any phenomenon of reality, as is known, begins with the collection and accumulation of individual facts related to this phenomenon. The facts available at the beginning of knowledge are always not enough to fully and immediately explain this phenomenon, to draw a reliable conclusion about what it is, what are the reasons for its occurrence, the laws of development, etc. Therefore, knowledge of objects and events outside world often proceeds using a hypothesis. Without waiting for facts to accumulate for a final, reliable conclusion (for example, about the nature and reason for the development of the phenomenon under study), they first give a conjectural explanation, and then this assumption is developed and proven. What is a hypothesis?

Essence of the hypothesis

A hypothesis, like a concept, judgment, and inference, which are discussed in previous chapters, reflects the objective world. And in this it is similar to the mentioned forms of thinking. However, the hypothesis differs from them. Its specificity lies not in what it reflects in the material world, but in the fact How reflects, i.e. presumably, probably and not categorically, unreliably. Therefore, it is no coincidence that the term “hypothesis” itself translated from Greek language means "guess".

It is known that when defining a concept through the closest genus and species difference, it is necessary to point out the essential features that distinguish this type from other species belonging to the same nearest genus. The closest genus for a hypothesis as a certain result of cognitive activity “is the concept of “assumption”. What is the specific difference between this type of assumption - a hypothesis - and other types of assumption, say, conjecture, fantasy, assumption, prediction, everyday assumption or guessing? It seems that the specific The difference for a hypothesis should be sought in the answer not to the question “What is the proposal about”, but to the question “What is the proposal.”

Based on this, it is necessary to highlight the following essential features of the hypothesis.

Firstly, a hypothesis is a special form of development of scientific knowledge. The construction of hypotheses in science makes it possible to move from individual scientific facts related to a phenomenon to their generalization and knowledge of the laws of development of this phenomenon.

Secondly, the construction of a scientific hypothesis is always accompanied by an assumption related to a theoretical explanation of the phenomena under study. It always appears in the form of a separate judgment or a system of interrelated judgments about the properties of individual facts or the natural connections of phenomena. This judgment is always problematic; it expresses probabilistic theoretical knowledge. Sometimes a hypothesis arises from deduction. For example, the hypothesis of K.A. Timiryazev's theory of photosynthesis was initially derived deductively from the law of conservation of energy.

Third, A hypothesis is a well-founded assumption based on specific facts. Therefore, the emergence of a hypothesis is a non-chaotic and not subconscious, but a natural and logically harmonious cognitive process that leads a person to obtain new knowledge about objective reality. For example, the new heliocentric system of N. Copernicus, revealing the idea of ​​the Earth’s rotation around the Sun and outlined by him in his work “On the Rotation of the Celestial Spheres,” was based on real facts and proved the inconsistency of the geocentric concept that was dominant at that time.

These essential features in their totality are quite sufficient to use them to distinguish a hypothesis from other types of assumption and determine its essence. A hypothesis (from the Greek gypothesis - basis, assumption) is a probabilistic assumption about the cause of any phenomena, the reliability of which in the modern state of production and science cannot be verified and proven, but which explains these phenomena, without it inexplicable; one of the methods of cognitive activity.

It is important to keep in mind that the term "hypothesis" is used in two meanings. Firstly, a hypothesis is understood as the assumption itself that explains the observed phenomenon (hypothesis in the narrow sense). Secondly, as a method of thinking in general, including putting forward an assumption, its development and proof (hypothesis in the broad sense).

The second, in fact, is difficult process thoughts leading from ignorance to knowledge. The study of the logical form of this process is one of the tasks of logic. “With the complete elimination of the hypothesis,” noted K.A. Timiryazev, “science would turn into a pile of bare facts.”

A hypothesis is often constructed as an assumption about the cause of past phenomena, about a natural order that has already ceased, but its assumption explains a certain set of phenomena that are well known from history or observed at the present time. Our knowledge, for example, about the formation of the solar system, the state of the earth's core, the origin of life on Earth, etc. is hypothetical.

A hypothesis ceases to exist in two cases: firstly, when it, having received confirmation, turns into reliable knowledge and becomes part of the theory; secondly, when the hypothesis is refuted and becomes false knowledge.

A hypothesis is an argument about certain phenomena of reality, based on a subjective view of the world, which directs an individual’s actions in a certain direction. If the result of an activity is unknown to a person, then first of all a rather generalized assumption is created, the verification of which allows the direction of work to be adjusted. This is the meaning of the word hypothesis.

The ability to predict and make predictions about the results of future work is the most important condition any scientific discovery. It allows you to calculate everything and reduce the likelihood of errors and misses. The research hypothesis, if it was born directly during the writing of the work, can be partially proven. If the outcome is known exactly, then the assumption makes no sense.

Now that it has become clear what a hypothesis is, we can talk about how it is built. The birth of an argument in a person’s head is not an easy process. A researcher must not only be able to create and update knowledge, but also have the following qualities:

• Problem vision is the ability to imagine the development paths of science, determine its main trends, and connect individual tasks with general ones. It consists of existing knowledge and skills, inner instinct, and research abilities.
• Alternative character - the ability to make unexpected conclusions, to find something new in the known.
• . This term means an unconscious process; unlike a conscious one, it is not based on logical thinking.

Types of assumptions and requirements for them

The concept of hypothesis includes two types: primary and scientific. The first establishes the objectives and conditions of the study. It is primarily used when the area is little studied. Such an argument only helps to select and systematize information, and the conclusions drawn on its basis form the conditions for further study and contribute to the creation of a real hypothesis.

A scientific hypothesis is based on theory and is more specific than the primary hypothesis. This is an argument about the real connection between phenomena and their justifications, about the presence of a particular phenomenon, quality or consequence. However, the difference between primary and scientific hypotheses is conditional - during study, one transforms into the other.

There are other types of hypotheses. Depending on the content, the assumption can be descriptive, explanatory and theoretical. For experimental research the first is typical. A descriptive judgment is simply a consideration of the practical relationship between an effect and its consequences, a statement of reasons and intended conclusions. It leads to the assumption that one method will be more effective than another, but does not explain its operation.

An explanatory hypothesis differs in that it reveals the causes of reality and includes their intended conclusions, and also describes the criteria under which these conclusions are inevitable. A theoretical judgment is an assumption of the natural nature of a statement that is proven in the process of research. It requires a series of actions indicating that the interaction between causes is natural.

A hypothesis as a scientific assumption must meet certain requirements:

• It cannot contain several theses.
• The argument should not include concepts and judgments that have an ambiguous meaning and are not explained by the researcher.
• When presenting an assumption, one should not use value judgments. A hypothesis must be supported by facts, tested and applied to a wide range of realities.
• The judgment must be impeccably stylistically designed, understandable, and logical.
• It must correspond to the topic, objectives and subject of the study. Often interesting assumptions are unnaturally tied to the topic.

• The argument should not lead away from the topic. If many new facts have emerged during the study, it is preferable to develop an assumption rather than include in advance provisions that will take a lot of time to prove and ultimately will not be confirmed.
• A judgment must respond to indisputable facts, interpret them, and identify new ones. The advantage goes to the assumption that explains the most facts equally convincingly.
• A hypothesis cannot contradict proven theories. If the assumption still diverges from some of them, but extends to a wider range of phenomena, then the old theories become its special case.
• The judgment must include a way to solve the problem in order to be part of the study.

Stages of construction and functions of assumptions

The argument is built in several stages. First, information, scientific and practical discoveries and other data related to the subject of research are accumulated and analyzed, as well as assumptions are made - you need to formulate a hypothesis. Then, based on this judgment, conclusions are drawn and its compliance with the conditions of the scientific statement is checked. This is followed by a conclusion about the validity and validity of the assumption.

The next stage is testing the research hypothesis. Proving the assumption is the main task of the future practical work. Judgments that have been justified become theory and are used for introduction into practice. If an assumption is not proven, then it is discarded or used as the basis for new arguments and avenues of study.

Scientific research is impossible without hypotheses.

• They are needed for the synthesis of knowledge, generalization and development of practical information.
• Can be any assumption, working or simplifying.
• Judgments help direct the course of research in the right direction.
• Assumptions are used to interpret experimental evidence or other hypotheses.
• They are used to preserve some hypotheses when new empirical indicators appear or inconsistencies with previous experience are detected.

So, a hypothesis is the most important link in research activity. Without it, no science can move forward, and it is a form of knowledge development. Author: Alexandra Pushkova

component scientific research or experimental work, which contains an assumption about possible result and the conditions for its achievement.

Excellent definition

Incomplete definition ↓

HYPOTHESIS

from Greek hypothesis - basis, assumption), a scientifically based assumption or assumption, the true meaning of which is uncertain; form of science development. G. is one of the scientific methods. research, knowledge of reality. After studying characteristic features phenomena, circumstances, conditions, etc., one can make an assumption about the essence of a given phenomenon (or classes of phenomena), begin to construct a G. The train of thought in this case takes the form of a kind of inference. When constructing a hypothesis, inference proceeds from the presence of a consequence (this or that fact or phenomenon) to the presence of a foundation (cause), or from the similarity of consequences or signs to the similarity of foundations. The next step is scientific. research consists of testing G. in practice. G. substantiated and confirmed by experience turns into reliable knowledge, into theory. For example, put forward by D.I. Mendeleev and then confirmed by numerous people. G. facts that the properties of chemicals. elements depend on their atomic weights, indicated the reason for the differences in the properties of elements, brought these elements into a harmonious system and gave a powerful impetus to the development of chemistry.

In the process of school During training, students should be explained the meaning of a statement and the conditions for its correct construction and application: a statement must be sufficiently substantiated and internally consistent; contradictions between hypotheticals should not be allowed. and established provisions. The learning process must be structured in such a way that, along with other forms of judgment, students also use statements; max. Problem-based learning opens up opportunities for the use of G. With the help of a system of questions asked by the teacher, students learn to put forward a hypothesis, justify it (if necessary) experimentally or using a system of reasoning, and formulate the resulting conclusion. G. are used mainly in teaching science subjects. cycle, when, when explaining a topic, integral problem tasks are introduced or students are given departments. problematic issues. The use of G. promotes the development of logical thinking in students. thinking, imagination, mastering the elements of creative cognition. activities, makes learning more active and interesting. Lit.: Kopni and P.V., Epistemology, and logic. fundamentals of science, M., 1974; Formal Logic, Leningrad, 1977; Karpovich V.N., Problem, hypothesis, law, Novosibirsk, 1980, p. 57 -120; Didactics cf. schools, ed. M. N. Skatkina, M., 1982, p. 197-207; X a-lilov U. M., Nekrytnye issues of development of productive thinking of schoolchildren when solving school problems. math. problems, in the book: Ways of formation of creativity. thinking of schoolchildren, Ufa, 1983, p. 74-77. A. N. Zhdan.

Excellent definition

Incomplete definition ↓

Much knowledge is the original hypotheses that were put forward by scientists to confirm or test them. If we consider the concept of a hypothesis, we can understand that it is an assumption or guess of a person who is considering a specific phenomenon or characteristic of an object. A hypothesis is a statement that a person makes about an unstudied phenomenon. Since anything can be studied, there are several types of hypotheses.

When a person does not know something, but constantly encounters a certain phenomenon or object, he wants to study it. This is quite normal for the human mind, which feels calm only when the phenomena around it are clear to it and have logical proof.

To begin to study something, a person must notice something that is not clear to him, and then begin to make assumptions about why this or that phenomenon happens, how it develops, how it is eliminated, what it is aimed at, etc. A person first puts forward his thoughts on account of what has not yet been studied. After which the process of proving or refuting the proposed idea occurs. Now a person must confirm that his opinion turned out to be correct and always works, or refute, find special conditions the occurrence of a particular phenomenon, its variability, etc.

A hypothesis is the first step on the path to knowledge. Even if a hypothesis is refuted, it still remains in the history of science, since there were certain prerequisites for its emergence. It is these premises that can then become evidence for another hypothesis that arises in a particular area.

The online magazine site refers to the wisdom of scientists: no knowledge can be formed without a hypothesis, and not every hypothesis is absolutely proven. In other words, a person needs to doubt even the knowledge that he possesses, since in the world one can find a refutation of an already proven phenomenon.

Even exact sciences do not fully prove certain phenomena. Undoubtedly, the knowledge that children acquire in schools has its own evidence. But one should not believe in their exclusive truth and immutability. Any knowledge can be questioned and refuted by other evidence.

Do not trust knowledge unconditionally. Doubt the knowledge you receive from books, magazines, and scientific literature. Moreover, test the knowledge you receive in action. The easiest example of how people are “stuffed” with false knowledge are history textbooks of your country and other countries. The longer you live, the more new information you receive and evidence that what you previously knew from history in school years, is not true.

Use exactly the same approach with other knowledge. For example, all women have more than once encountered the fact that modern creams, shampoos and ointments for body and hair care do not give the effect that is written on the jars. There are many folk remedies, which supposedly should also help maintain their youth and beauty. But they are often ineffective. Accordingly, they give you false information, that is, they deceive you.

Even knowledge that is scientific should be treated with doubt and caution. Undoubtedly, it is good to know all the techniques of manipulation when communicating with other people. Some of them really work. But we should not forget that there are people who do not give in to manipulation or see manipulation. By “resistance” to manipulation we mean that in fact these manipulations do not work at all. For example, it is believed that you should not sit opposite your interlocutor during communication, as this creates a position of confrontation. But if you interview many people, it turns out that they never felt that they were being attacked, just because they sat opposite them.

Knowledge is useful and important to all people. But if you don’t want to become a puppet in the hands of people who benefit from programming you to do something, doubt the information you receive. They tell you something, take it into account, but check the knowledge you have acquired. After all, much of what people are told is untrue, designed to distract people, misdirect them, intimidate them, or cause certain reactions that are actually unwarranted. Doubt what you know until you test your knowledge in practice. Check to understand what knowledge is correct and what is false.

What is a hypothesis?

But let's return to where all knowledge begins - to the hypothesis. Scientists first put forward a hypothesis in order to later make it knowledge or a disproved hypothesis. What it is? A hypothesis is a statement in the form of a guess or assumption that requires explanation. It arises in any area of ​​human life where a person does not yet have knowledge and cannot explain specific phenomena. A hypothesis is put forward to address an object, phenomenon or specific characteristic, cause of occurrence or elimination, which then requires evidence and study.

At first, a hypothesis is not true or false. It is necessary to conduct experiments, look at the phenomenon in natural conditions, trace all the changes, find all the strong evidence or refutations in order to come to the conclusion that the hypothesis turns into true knowledge or a false assumption.

If a hypothesis has been refuted, it is not forgotten, but remains in the history of the study of a particular phenomenon. The reason for this approach is that a false hypothesis is based on real and proven factors, it just needs to be changed, adjusted, supplemented so that it becomes true knowledge. Hypotheses don’t just arise in a person’s head, so refuted knowledge requires revision, adjustment and bringing it to the truth.

The process is quite simple:

1. First, an idea appears in a person’s head – a hypothesis. He assumes or explains in his own way a certain phenomenon.
2. Then research and experiments are carried out to prove or disprove the hypothesis.
3. Conclusions are drawn based on the results obtained.

Even if a hypothesis has been refuted, it still becomes an aid to putting forward a new hypothesis. It is simply corrected, supplemented, modified.

If a hypothesis has been proven, it turns into knowledge. However, not every knowledge is absolute. It is possible to find refutations that cast doubt on true knowledge. Therefore, even knowledge may turn out to be false in some (not all) situations.

The hypothesis could be:

1. Public or private.
2. Superficial or deep.
3. Refer to specific characteristics or consider the subject as a whole.
4. Belong to one field of knowledge or combine several sciences.

A hypothesis is scientific and theoretical knowledge that requires proof. A hypothesis is put forward by a scientist who encounters certain phenomena or objects, behind which he notices specific characteristics that do not yet have an explanation. Where a person has questions, hypotheses appear. Only if scientists have hypotheses as knowledge that needs to be proven or disproved through research and experimentation, then ordinary people ideas and thoughts that arose in the head at the individual level are often perceived by a person as true knowledge, insight, knowledge of the true, so he does not even refute his idea, considering it correct in all cases.

Knowledge is first hypothetical, that is, just an assumption that explains causes, connections, characteristics and phenomena. Then comes a period of numerous studies and experiments, observations and other processes that should confirm or refute the hypothesis. If the hypothesis turns out to be incomplete, then it is corrected. If it has no basis at all for its occurrence, then it is completely abandoned.

Types of hypotheses

There are two types of hypothesis:

1. Theoretical – when it is necessary to eliminate contradictions and attribute a hypothesis to a specific theory.
2. Empirical – when the truth of a hypothesis needs to be proven.
3. Descriptive – when the characteristics of a specific object are considered. It also includes an existential hypothesis - consideration of the existence of something, for example, the hypothesis of the existence of Atlantis.
4. Explanatory – when connections and reasons for the development of specific phenomena are considered.
5. General – when phenomena affecting life as a whole are considered.
6. Particular – characteristics are considered specific items or even one object.
7. Working – when a hypothesis is just being put forward and is at the stage of refutation or proof.
8. A hypothesis based on reality.
9. Scientific and experimental.
10. Experimental.
11. Statistical – parameters that are used for evidence or research are considered.

Be in doubt as a result?

IN modern world The best strategy for building relationships is to constantly doubt the veracity of the interlocutor. This is especially true for people whom you have just met. It is better not to trust others than to believe in their boundless kindness and end up in an unpleasant situation.

A modern person can easily deceive his interlocutor. People learn this from childhood, when they understand that their parents react in a certain way to certain words. The child gets used to telling his parents what they want to hear, which develops into the habit of communicating with others in the same way.

You may be no exception and notice a habit of resorting to lies in certain cases. For conscious and unconscious reasons, a person begins to lie, realizing what he is doing. Even in this case, he does not stop, because lies bring him more benefits than the truth.

Everyone lies or is simply wrong. There are people who deceive and understand that they are doing something wrong, which is why they later repent. And there are those who lie and do not feel remorse for what they did. Know that almost everyone you interact with is lying, especially if you have only known each other for a short time.

One significant feature of when a person does tell the truth should be noted. Whatever the truth, no matter how it hurts, it evokes respect from the interlocutor to whom it is spoken. You may be offended for hearing the truth, but at the same time you will have respect for the person for not being afraid to reveal the truth, no matter how bitter it may be, and jeopardize your relationship. Everyone reacts differently to the truth: some people are grateful for what they were told, others accuse the speaker of all sins. Telling the truth can sometimes become dangerous, especially for relationships. Those who don't take risks and don't say it don't get respect. Surprisingly, the bitter truth is a means of subconscious respect for the one who told it.