Man is the measure of all things that exist. Protagoras - "Man is the measure of all things"
The early Greek philosophers turned their thoughts to the mysteries of the universe and devoted their lives to the search for truth for its own sake. In a close circle of friends united by spiritual interests, they shared their ideas, but, as a rule, did not seek public recognition. In the eyes of those around them, they often looked like eccentrics, people "not of this world."
Know yourself!
"Know yourself!" These words were inscribed on a pillar of the Delphic temple of Apollo, the god sunlight, the rays of which can be healing and destructive.
The temple's celebrity was the Delphic oracle, the soothsayer of fate. Socrates believed that he was called to philosophize by the luminiferous Apollo himself. One of Socrates' friends dared to ask the Delphic oracle a question: "Is there anyone among people who is wiser than Socrates?" The oracle's answer was: "There is no one wiser than Socrates!"
Socrates was puzzled: he never considered himself wiser than others. To understand what the oracle wanted to say, he turned to those people who are reputed to be wise in the opinion of the majority - politicians, poets, even simple artisans. Politicians, when he took a closer look at them, although they pretended to know everyone, were no wiser than others. Craftsmen, people who knew their business, considered themselves wise in everything else. The conclusion reached by Socrates was the following: if I am wiser than the rest, it is only because I know that I don't know.
Originally the inscription "Know thyself!" on the pillar of the temple of Apollo served as a call to self-control and meant: "know thyself", i.e. do not be arrogant, do not fall into pride. Socrates gives this Delphic saying a new meaning by making self-knowledge main principle of his philosophy . Knowing yourself, your moral essence and its implementation in life - this is the way to achieve meaning. human life. "Know who you are, and become yourself!" - says the philosopher.
Based on the principle of self-knowledge, Socrates develops a number of ideas that proved to be extremely fruitful for the entire subsequent development of philosophy:
1. To live a worthy life, one must live consciously. It is unworthy to live from day to day without being aware of how I live.
2. The truth is in each of us - not in the arrangement of the stars, not in the covenants of the fathers and not in the opinion of the majority. Therefore, no one can teach true knowledge about life, it can only be achieved by one's own efforts.
3. Self-knowledge has an internal enemy, it is conceit. Often a person is sure that he has knowledge of the truth, although in reality he is only protecting his Subjective opinion. People constantly talk about justice, courage, beauty, they consider them important and valuable in life, for all that they do not know what it is. It turns out that they live as if in a dream, not being aware of their words or deeds.
To awaken the mind from this sleep, to promote a conscious attitude towards one's life is the task of the philosopher. Entering into a conversation with Socrates, a person, even if at first the conversation turned to something else, could not stop before he went through some segment of the path of self-knowledge, until he gave "an account in himself of how he lived and how he lives now ".
Philosophy is the systematic and critical examination of the way we judge, judge, and act, with the aim of making us wiser, to know ourselves better, and thereby to improve ourselves.
And today I want to introduce you to the ancient Greek philosopher, whose name is Protagoras(c. 490-420 BC)
Before starting a story about him, I want to say that his thought seemed close to me: “a person cognizes the world through sensations, but the mind is not able to comprehend the unshakable and eternal reality.”
"MAN IS THE MEASURE OF ALL THINGS"
The ancient Greek philosopher, thinker Protagoras, presumably a native of the Greek village of Abdera in Thrace, was the most famous among the educators and teachers of that time, who were called sophists, which meant "lovers of wisdom." He not only taught his students the world and his phenomena, but also aroused their interest in his study. He argued that there is no objective truth, but only subjective opinion and man is the measure of all things.
Information about his life, teachings and death has practically not reached our time. His writings did not remain. Everything perished as a result of fires, shipwrecks and other disasters. His teaching was subsequently restored mainly from the records of Plato and Diogenes Laertes.
Protagoras spent most of his life traveling in Italy, Sicily, lived in Athens. He argued a lot with his like-minded people. Protagoras, who was considered the most outstanding sophist, nevertheless did not create his own scientific school, which would represent the integrity of his teaching. His teaching was reduced to reasoning on different topics in which he showed undisguised skepticism. Protagoras and his followers argued that a person cognizes the world through sensations, while the mind is not able to comprehend the unshakable and eternal reality.
According to Plato, Protagoras was an extraordinary personality, he had a strong charm, spoke intelligently and inspired respect for others around him. He was often invited to the house of aristocrats - it was very honorable to get a famous sophist to visit. Protagoras demanded considerable sums for these visits. They gave him money and gifts. On these rewards he lived. True, at that time trading in wisdom was condemned, it was believed that money depreciates the essence of the doctrine. Plato wrote that Protagoras was so successful in the art of eloquence that he earned even more than the great Greek sculptor Phidias.
It can be assumed that some of the funds Protagoras spent on noble deeds. Perhaps he built his own school, because he also taught his students for money, and they had to be placed somewhere. The accumulated capital served him as a support even in old age. It is believed that he lived for 70 years, for those times this is a very respectable age.
Protagoras was the first who drew attention to the speech of a person, divided it into categories of the speaker's intentions: wish, question, answer, orders or narration. He singled out three kinds of names - male, female and middle. With the help of such a division, the philosopher wanted, on the one hand, to streamline Greek language, to give it a rational logical character, and on the other hand, it developed in students the ability to clearly express their thoughts, the ability to search for the truth and argue it.
The Greeks since the time of Homer recognized the great influence of rhetoric on the individual and on the masses of people. Clarity of thought reflects the intellect of the individual. A cleverly speaking sophist gained power over the minds of others. Protagoras skillfully used rhetoric to prove this or that controversial issue. He said that with regard to each subject, two opposite theses can be put forward. It is necessary to skillfully prove the correctness of one of them, and even a weak thesis can be made strong.
Educated sophists found it difficult to oppose anything in a dispute. Using rhetoric, they could prove any statement. Since that time, "sophistry" is often called superficial reasoning, which is used in dispute only to defend one's opinion.
Protagoras is considered the author of such works as "The Science of the Dispute", "On the Original Order of Things".
“On the State”, “On Virtue”, but they have not been preserved in writing.
Around 411 BC, he was accused of denying the gods. His book On the Gods was confiscated and burned. On the litigation Protagoras was accused of everything grave sins. He was charged with a statement taken from this book: “It is impossible to know about the gods either that they exist, or that they do not exist, and what they look like. And the reason for this: the vagueness of the question and the brevity of human life. He was sentenced to death penalty, but, obviously, pardoned and expelled from Athens.
Protagoras was deeply convinced that there is no universally valid truth, but every opinion is true, although every truth is someone else's opinion.
I know the world. Philosophy Andrey Tsukanov
"MAN IS THE MEASURE OF ALL THINGS"
Many are familiar with the word "sophism" - pronounced, as a rule, with a touch of disdain in the voice and denoting a pseudo-wise, pseudo-true statement. This word goes back to the name of the Ancient Greece traditions of the sophists, or teachers of wisdom. They created schools where they taught young men various sciences and arts, the main of which they revered was the art of formulating and defending their opinion in a dispute on certain important philosophical issues. Sophists loved to talk literally about everything - about the structure of the world, about being, about man and society, about mathematics, music, poetry and much more. Often these arguments seemed paradoxical, contradictory common sense, but this was of little concern to the sophists - the main thing, they believed, was that the reasoning proving this or that opinion was logically coherent. And whether it corresponds to the truth or not - it does not matter, because the sophists believed that there is not and cannot be any general or objective truth.
The Sophists took a philosophical position of doubt in relation to what the first natural philosophical systems of Thales, Parmenides, Heraclitus, Democritus, and others had affirmed before them. The Sophists believed that if one accepts the point of view of one or another natural philosopher, one will have to admit that human knowledge is simply impossible. After all, cognition is a process of advancement or development of consciousness. If, for example, we accept the position of Parmenides on the impossibility of movement, then no process, including cognitive, is possible. If, on the contrary, we accept the position of Heraclitus that “everything flows, everything changes,” then it turns out that knowledge simply has nothing to rely on. Indeed, if I this moment cognized something about an object, then in the next moment of time this object changed, and I, who cognizes it, also changed - thus, the knowledge received is not true, it seems to hang in the air.
One of the most famous sophists, Gorgias (c. 483-373 BC), a student of Empedocles, was the first to formulate three principles of relativity of human knowledge: nothing exists; if something exists, it cannot be known; and if it can be known, then this knowledge cannot be transferred and explained to another. Interestingly, Gorgias attached great importance to the main method of transmitting information that existed at that time - speech. “Speech,” he said, “is a powerful mistress that performs the most divine deeds with the smallest and most inconspicuous body, because it is able to drive away fear, and avert sorrow, and arouse concern, and increase sympathy.”
Another well-known sophist, Protagoras (c. 481-411 BC), considering the problem of knowledge, believed that it is an exclusively personal matter of each person. There is no general, objective knowledge about the world, each person learns something of his own, and determines the truth of his knowledge for himself. Protagoras famous phrase: "Man is the measure of all things" speaking not about the fact that a person rules over the world, but about the fact that he has no other criterion for the truth of his knowledge of the world, except for himself.
The Sophists became famous for expressing many very controversial ideas. Let's just say that there is only one phrase of the sophist Thrasymachus that "justice is nothing but the benefit of the strongest." However, sophistry played a very important role in the development of philosophy - firstly, it raised the question of the relativity of philosophical knowledge, and, secondly, prepared the understanding that man is the center of philosophy, and this created the ground for the emergence of the teachings of such great philosophers as Socrates, Plato and Aristotle.
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According to Democritus, emptiness separates tiny particles being - "atoms" (indivisible). Democritus admits an infinite number of such atoms, thereby rejecting the assertion that being is one. Atoms, according to Democritus, are separated by emptiness; emptiness is non-being and as such is unknowable: rejecting Parmenides' claim that being is unknowable.
It is also characteristic that Democritus distinguishes between the world of atoms - as true and therefore cognizable only by reason - and the world of sensible things, which are only an external appearance, the essence of which is atoms, their properties and movements. Atoms cannot be seen, they can only be thought.
5. Socrates and the Sophists: An Anthropological Turn in Ancient Greek Philosophy. Basic principles of the Socratic method. Ethics of Socrates.
Socrates is an ancient Greek philosopher whose teaching marks a turn in philosophy - from the consideration of nature and the world, to the consideration of man. Sentenced to death for "corrupting the youth" and "disrespecting the gods". His work is a turning point in ancient philosophy. With his method of analyzing concepts (maieutics, dialectics) and identifying virtue and knowledge, he directed the attention of philosophers to the unconditional significance of the human personality.
Socrates is characterized by the fact that, speaking out against the sophists (after all, they, for example, took money for education), at the same time, in his work and views, he expressed those features of philosophical activity that were specific to the sophists. Socrates does not recognize the problems characteristic of the philosophers of those times: reflections on nature, its origin, the universe, etc. According to Socrates, philosophy should not deal with nature, but with man, his moral qualities, and the essence of knowledge. Questions of ethics - that's the main thing that philosophy should deal with, and this was the main subject of Socrates' conversations.
“... Socrates investigated the moral virtues and was the first to try to give them general definitions(after all, of those who spoke about nature, only Democritus touched a little on this and in some way gave definitions of warm and cold; and the Pythagoreans - before him - did this for a little, the definitions of which they reduced to numbers, indicating, for example, what an opportunity, or justice, or marriage ... Two things can rightly be attributed to Socrates - evidence through guidance and general definitions: both of them concern the beginning of knowledge, ”wrote Aristotle (“Metaphysics”, XIII, 4).
The Socratic Method Socrates, to substantiate his views, uses the method he developed, which entered the history of philosophy under the name Socratic, namely, dialectics, the art of dialectical dispute. Dialectics is a method by which ethical concepts are presented and developed, substantiated. For Socrates, philosophy is the consideration of a specific moral phenomenon, in the process of which we come to the definition of what this phenomenon represents, that is, to the definition of its essence.
The Sophistic movement (450-350 BC) completed the evolution of pre-Socratic thinking and laid the foundations for the next stage in the development of Greek philosophy. The Sophists found the diverse teachings of their predecessors unsatisfactory and criticized them. The theoretical foundations of sophistry were developed by Protagoras. Based on the relativism (recognition of the relativity, convention and subjectivity of knowledge) of Heraclitus, Protagoras taught that things are as they seem to each of us; everything is truth; man is the measure of all things. Based on these provisions, a practical use sophistry to moral and social life. The Sophists put forward the thesis of the relativity of the law and argued that everyone has the right to use any means to satisfy their desires.
The period of activity of the sophists, who disenchanted mythical models and questioned traditional ideas about morality, is sometimes referred to as the Greek Enlightenment. Sophists, who are interested in man and society, act as the forerunners of a new paradigm of Greek thinking, in which the center of research is no longer nature, but man.
Socrates' method, which he used in his dialogues:
1. Doubt - The wisest is the one who understands that "I know that I know nothing."
2. Irony - revealing contradictions in the statements of the interlocutor.
4. Induction - finding empirical data, facts confirming the answer
5. Definition - the final definition.
So the Socratic method is a maieutic dialogue. I thought that knowledge is good in itself. Evil comes from ignorance. Knowledge is the source of moral perfection.
Protagoras... Man is the measure of all things
Lev Balashov
The ancient Greek philosopher Protagoras put forward the thesis: "Man is the measure of all things that exist, that they exist, and non-existent, that they do not exist." For example, the same wind blows, but someone freezes at the same time, and someone does not. So how can you say that the wind is cold or warm in itself?
The logician A. M. Anisov comments: “This is a very convenient philosophy, since it allows you to justify anything. Since man is the measure of all things, he is also the measure of truth and falsehood. Hence the thesis of the sophists that every statement can be justified or refuted with equal success. Some sophists were ready to go to the point of absurdity” [Anisov A.M. Modern logic. M., 2002. S. 19].
This is one conclusion from the thesis of Protagoras. However, other assessments of the thesis are possible, quite positive. In fact, a person passes all the information coming from outside through himself, through his body, personality, soul, mind. Naturally, he willy-nilly acts as a kind of filter-measure.
The thesis of Protagoras points to this property of a person, to the fact that a person, when evaluating-looking at things, cannot jump out of himself, out of his “skin”, be completely impartial, objective, that he always brings a particle of himself into his thoughts-judgments. , their subjectivity (both as an individual, and as a representative of a particular community, and as a representative of the entire human race).
It is better to know about this original, irremovable subjectivity in advance than to deceive yourself and others. The thesis of Protagoras protects us from all sorts of prophets, clairvoyants, false sages who declare themselves to be the bearers-keepers of the truth-truth.
Unlike Protagoras, who developed the doctrine of the relativity of truth and all knowledge on the example, first of all, of the sensual stage of knowledge, the second famous sophist Gorgias (485-378 BC) based his teaching on the difficulties that mind, trying to build a consistent worldview at the level of philosophical categories (one and many, being and non-being, being and thinking). And if Protagoras taught that everything is true, then Gorgias claims that everything is false. The main content of the views of Gorgias was set forth in the essay "On the non-existent, or on nature." In the first section of his work, he proves that nothing exists; in the second, that if something even exists, it is incomprehensible; in the third, that if it is comprehensible, it is inexpressible and inexplicable to others. It can be said that here we are talking, first of all, that outside of a person nothing unconditional exists.
The first thesis - nothing exists - Gorgias proves, based on the teachings of the unity of being of the Eleatics and the plurality of atomists. The Eleatics proved that non-existence cannot exist. Gorgias also proves that being cannot exist, being plural and one at the same time. The concept of being is contradictory and therefore untenable.
Speaking of the unknowability of beings, Gorgias proceeds from the denial of the identity of being and thinking. Existing and thinking do not coincide, therefore, thought does not contain the existent, and thus it is impossible to know the existent. On the same basis, the impossibility of expressing, conveying knowledge is also affirmed, because it is transmitted by words. Words, like thought, do not coincide with beings, i.e. words do not contain the things that we communicate through words. In a word, the existent does not coincide with either the thought or the word, and it can neither be known nor expressed - everything is false. Gorgias' nihilism stems from a one-sided approach to the flexibility and plasticity of concepts, their internal inconsistency, reflecting the fluidity, variability, and inconsistency of this world itself.
6. The main part of Plato's philosophy, which gave the name to a whole trend of philosophy, is the doctrine of ideas (eidos), the existence of two worlds: the world of ideas (eidos) and the world of things, or forms. Ideas (eidos) are prototypes of things, their sources. Ideas (eidos) underlie the whole multitude of things formed from formless matter. Ideas are the source of everything, while matter itself cannot produce anything.
The world of ideas (eidos) exists outside of time and space. There is a certain hierarchy in this world, at the top of which stands the idea of the Good, from which all the rest flow. Good is identical to absolute Beauty, but at the same time it is the Beginning of all beginnings and the Creator of the Universe. In the myth of the cave, the Good is depicted as the Sun, ideas are symbolized by those creatures and objects that pass in front of the cave, and the cave itself is an image of the material world with its illusions.
The idea (eidos) of any thing or being is the deepest, most intimate and essential in it. In man, the role of an idea is played by his immortal soul. Ideas (eidos) have the qualities of constancy, unity and purity, and things - variability, multiplicity and distortion.
The human soul is represented by Plato in the form of a chariot with a rider and two horses, white and black. The charioteer symbolizes the rational principle in a person, and the horses: white - noble, higher qualities of the soul, black - passions, desires and an instinctive principle. When a person is in another world, he (the charioteer) gets the opportunity, together with the gods, to contemplate eternal truths. When a person is born again in the material world, the knowledge of these truths remains in his soul as a memory. Therefore, according to Plato's philosophy, the only way for a person to know is to remember, to find "reflections" of ideas in the things of the sensual world. When a person manages to see the traces of ideas - through beauty, love or just deeds - then, according to Plato, the wings of the soul, once lost by it, begin to grow again.
Hence the importance of Plato's teachings about Beauty, about the need to look for it in nature, people, art or well-organized laws, because when the soul gradually ascends from the contemplation of physical beauty to the beauty of the sciences and arts, then to the beauty of morals and customs, this the best way for the soul to climb the "golden ladder" to the world of ideas.
Plato's theory of knowledge is inseparable from his doctrine of being, from his psychology, cosmology and mythology. The doctrine of knowledge turns into a myth. According to Plato, our soul is immortal. Before she settled on the earth and took on a bodily shell, the soul supposedly contemplated the truly existing being and retained knowledge of it. A person will know without learning from anyone, but only by answering questions, that is, he will draw knowledge from himself, therefore, he will remember. Therefore, the essence of the process of cognition, according to Plato, is the recollection by the soul of those ideas that it had already contemplated.
Plato wrote that “and since everything in nature is related to each other, and the soul has known everything, nothing prevents the one who remembered one thing - people call this knowledge - to find everything else himself, if only he is tireless in search ". Therefore, the nature of the soul must be akin to the nature of "ideas". “The soul is similar to the divine, and the body to the mortal,” we read in Plato, “... the divine, immortal, intelligible, uniform, indecomposable, permanent and unchanging in itself in. Our soul is similar to the highest degree.” In the words of J. Reale: "The soul must have a similar nature to the absolute, otherwise ... everything eternally existing would remain outside the soul's ability to perceive."
Only thinking gives true meaning. Thinking, on the other hand, is an absolutely independent process of recall, independent of sensory perceptions. Sense perception generates only an opinion about things. In this regard, the process of cognition is defined by Plato as dialectics, that is, the art of leading oral speech, the art of asking questions and answering them, evoking memories. In other words, this is a reasonable comprehension of the truly existing kinds of being or ideas - "the most perfect knowledge." Plato's dialectic is the path or movement of thought through the untrue to the true. Such an impression or such a thought that contains a contradiction can call the soul to reflection. “That which affects the sensations at the same time as its opposite, I have defined as stimulating,” says Plato, “and what does not act in this way does not awaken thought.” The first half of the task of dialectical, in the Platonic sense, research is to determine an unambiguous, precisely fixed definition of "kind". It is necessary, in the words of Plato himself, "covering everything with a general look, to raise to a single idea that which is scattered everywhere, in order, by giving a definition to each, to make the subject of teaching clear." The second half of the same task is to "divide into species, into natural components, while trying not to break up any of them."
Who owns the expression "Man is the measure of all things"? Reveal its meaning.
- known to all popular expression"Man is the measure of all things" is attributed to the ancient Hellenic philosopher Protagoras. Many of its interpretations are known, from abstract philosophical to quite specific biogeometric ones. It is very important to have a psychological understanding of this motto, which allows you to build harmonious relationships with yourself and with external environment which form the basis of effective life strategies.
Each of the people subjectively is in the center of his own life world. Due to the peculiarities of upbringing inherent in him, the details of his personal biography, and even the specifics of the occupation, everyone understands his own world in his own way, giving everything that happens and is observed own interpretations, individual meanings and unique personal meanings.
Physicists know the so-called anthropic principle, according to which the value of known physical constants, due to hitherto unknown circumstances, turned out to be such that, in principle, the appearance of a person in the course of the evolution of living matter became possible. The higher meaning of the anthropic principle cannot be found without recourse to the consideration of religious doctrines. But it is known for sure that insignificant changes in the size of at least one of the known physical constants are enough for the existence of not only man, but also the living nature of the Earth to be impossible. It turns out that the whole (!) surrounding world was created for the sake of the emergence and development of the people themselves.
For a long time, due to well-known historical limitations and social upheavals, a person in a community tried to live in accordance with abstract moral and normative principles recognized by all. Deviation from following these norms was considered as an open challenge to society, and therefore was punished by ostracism, so that others would be discouraged.
The onset of the information age, which presented special requirements for the disclosure of the creative potentials of each of the people, dictated a new maxim of normative behavior: the central guideline in choosing a behavior strategy and criteria for assessing what is happening should be the holistic psycho-emotional and physical well-being of a particular person, so to speak, "so that you feel good" .The discovery of a fundamental practical psychology The principle of harmonious naturalness of preference made it possible to create the "Key" art technology, with the help of which people will become even more self-active and creatively autonomous in creating their existence.
The French architect Corbusier proposed his famous modulor, based on the geometric proportions of the human body, as a unit of structural construction of any architectural creations. Russian architect I.P. Shmelev, in his concept of a duplex sphere, created a new biotropic model for constructing an artificial habitat, in which alone a person can feel comfortable. It turned out that the man-made environment, in order to meet the vital requirements of the organism and psyche, must be organized according to anthropotropic mathematical laws, only one of which is the Golden Section Principle.Man must be worthy of his own centrality.
Perhaps it is the information age that reveals the true destiny of a person - to be the creator of beauty, to be the guardian of life, to be a rejoicing and enjoying being. It seems that the time is coming to recognize the expediency and justification of the most natural position that a conscious person can take - the position of autocentrism.
Listen to yourself, understand the voice of your own intuition, focus on your deep attitude to own affairs and build your own life world, just the way you like it yourself. Because, ultimately, no one outside, no one outsider knows a person and his deeds better than himself. Thus, a person becomes truly a creator. Thus humanity is transformed into a community of rejoicing craftsmen. - Protagoras is an ancient Greek sophist. Sophists for the first time re-emphasized philosophical problems per person, proclaiming it the main value of the Sun, what is beneficial to a person is right. Cease to be profitable - loses truth. denounced absolute values, believed that the truth is relative - depends on how reality is perceived by a person, etc...
- Most fully the essence of the views of the sophists was expressed by Protagoras. He owns the famous position: Man is the measure of all things: existing, that they exist, and non-existent, that they do not exist. He spoke about the relativity of all knowledge, proving that each statement can be equal ground countered by a statement that contradicts it. Note that Protagoras wrote the laws that determined the democratic form of government and justified the equality of free people.
- Man measures everything by himself