Academic, applied and practical psychology. Practical psychology as a science

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6. Fundamental, applied, popular, practical and everyday psychology - their relationship.

Applied psychology is a practice-oriented psychology aimed at specialist psychologists. Applied psychology requires reliance on the scientific base and language of scientific articles.

Applied psychology refers to all branches of academic psychology that seek to apply the principles, discoveries and theories of psychology in practice in related fields, such as education (pedagogy), industry (ergonomics), marketing, public opinion polling, sports (sports psychology), human resources. (psychodiagnostics), etc. and/or discover basic principles that can be applied in this way.

Practical psychology, in contrast to applied psychology, is focused on a wide contingent of the educated population and their needs - both personal and business. Practical psychology is based not only on a scientific basis, but also on working metaphors that have proven themselves in practice and do not have a scientific basis.

Applied psychology - sections and branches of psychology focused on solving a variety of practical problems. Such sections include pedagogical, economic, engineering psychology, labor psychology, sports, management, aviation and space, military, medical psychology, psychology of reading and library work, creativity, legal, psychology of family and everyday life, etc.

Applied psychology uses models and methods developed by theoretical psychology, for example, patterns of learning can be used to write manuals for salespeople. On the other hand, applied psychology receives its own data, develops its own methods and develops new directions in psychology (for example, coaching as one of the methods of counseling and activating human potential, which arose about 20 years ago and developed by American psychologists T. Leonard and D. Whitmore ). - Everyday psychology knowledge accumulated and used by man in. They are specific and are formed in a person during his life as a result of observations, introspection and reflection. This knowledge is passed on from mouth to mouth and written down, reflecting centuries of everyday experience. The main criterion for the truth of knowledge of everyday psychology is its plausibility and obvious usefulness in everyday life situations. The features of this knowledge are specificity and practicality. Everyday psychological knowledge is characterized by fragmentation. Such knowledge is intuitive. The basis of everyday psychology is joint activity, communication, and real relationships between people. Rich psychological experience has been accumulated in fairy tales. Behind fairy-tale characters certain psychological types and characters of people encountered in life are guessed. Proverbs such as “Measure twice - cut once”, “Repetition is the mother of learning, but the enemy of creativity”, “Look for a bride in the garden, not in a round dance”, “Spiritual purity is more important than physical purity”, express very definite facts of human psychology .

Scientific psychology. The main goal of scientific psychology is to search for new psychological knowledge about the inner world of people. For scientific psychology, the general patterns of mental life are of interest. Scientific psychology is based on empirical scientific facts, that is, facts obtained experimentally. Scientific and psychological facts are characterized by objectivity, that is, they are independent of the subjective opinion of the scientist. Scientific psychological knowledge is rational and conscious. Scientific methods provide greater reliability and evidence to the acquired knowledge. In scientific psychology, there are reliable and testable ways to measure mental phenomena. Scientific psychology is often called academic psychology. At the same time, it is usually divided into fundamental and applied.

Practical psychology. Its main goal is psychological help to people. The work of practical psychologists is aimed at finding ways and developing methods of psychological assistance to people in solving their life or professional problems. The subject of practical psychology is the individuality of a person and the specific circumstances of his life, a specific individual or a specific group, and not the general patterns of mental phenomena (as in scientific psychology). The criterion for the reliability of knowledge of this type is the experience and efficiency of specialists. The characteristics of knowledge in practical psychology can be considered specificity and practicality. Psychological knowledge obtained as a result of practical work experience is generalized and systematized. The concepts of practical psychology are distinguished by their metaphorical nature, that is, the use of terms that have a figurative figurative meaning. In practical psychology, the influence of the psychologist’s personality on the process and results of work is significant.

Popular psychology is a system of knowledge and practices related to psychology that has gained popularity among a wide range of people. Examples of such systems and practices: NLP, Socionics, Transactional Analysis, Synthon, Smart Path.

The main distinguishing features of pop psychology are:

Simple language understandable to the general public

Lack of verification (empirical testing) and critical stance towards theories

Virtually unlimited scope of application

Pop psychology relies mainly on the author's life experience and sometimes on a simplified interpretation of scientific data

Ready-made unambiguous answers to psychological problems in the form of recipes

Absence of a boundary between scientific and non-scientific knowledge (for example, scientific psychological concepts and karma, aura, etc. are mixed in one direction)

The fundamental part of psychology is represented by general psychology - a discipline that tries to find answers to fundamental questions facing psychological science as a whole, to develop theoretical principles, to substantiate methods of psychological cognition, to formulate the basic laws of the existence and development of mental reality. The most global of the questions that interest her (we had the opportunity to partly trace them when considering the formation of the subject of psychology): what is the psyche? What are its structure and functions? According to what laws does it develop in phylogenesis and ontogenesis? What are the levels of its development and by what criteria can they be distinguished? How do the psyche and the brain relate? What role do congenital and acquired play in mental development? biological and social? What are the criteria for distinguishing between normal and abnormal mental development?

7. Specifics of psychological knowledge.

1. General characteristics of psychology as a science

pre-scientific stage - reflected in the history of culture: Theophrastus, Zazuan, temperament; philosophy: Aristotle “Treatise on the Soul”; pedagogy, medicine, art.

scientific stage - 1879, W. Wundt, metronome.

a) Differences between scientific and everyday P

Two meanings of the word “psychologist” -

Representative of science, professional researcher of the laws of the psyche and consciousness, features of psychology and human behavior.

A person who “understands the soul”, understands people, their actions, and experiences. The true experts on human relationships are writers and thinkers.

They correspond to two different areas of psychological knowledge - scientific and everyday psychology. If scientific psychology arose relatively recently (in 1879, W. Wundt opened the first laboratory of experimental psychology in Leipzig), then everyday psychological knowledge has always been included in various types of human practice (difference and consideration of the characteristics of mental makeup).

The main difference between NP and LP: for LP the field of research activity is almost endless; in NP there is a sharp narrowing, a limitation recorded in a special language. In NP it is possible, in a special experimental situation, to isolate the elements of a phenomenon, reproduce them, measure them, identify the connections of these elements and establish the patterns to which they obey.

Processes

Ordinary, ZhP

Scientific P

1. Gaining knowledge

Individual experience in a specific situation. Acquired randomly, knowledge is extracted intuitively, unsystematically, spontaneously.

Based on abstract experience, conceptually framed. The method is purposeful, systematized, instrumentally equipped, conscious.

2. Knowledge retention

Situational-contextual statement (proverbs, aphorisms, traditions, rituals). But - indifferent to logic, empirical, associated with personal experience, often contradictory. Saved in personal experience, fiction.

Systematized in the form of logically consistent provisions, axioms, hypotheses. Knowledge is purposefully accumulated, expanded and deepened. Preserved in scientific literature.

3. Playback

Easily accessible, but do not record the actual conditions under which they were obtained. The problem of fathers and children (they repeat the same mistakes, accumulate their own experience). It is transmitted in personal communication.

Complete recording of the conditions for obtaining knowledge necessary for its reproduction. Knowledge is organized in scientific theories and serves as the basis for putting forward new hypotheses. Transferred during specially organized training.

NP – a system of theoretical (conceptual), methodological and experimental properties of cognition and research of mental phenomena; transition from an unlimited and heterogeneous description of these phenomena to their precise substantive definition, to the possibility of methodological registration, experimental establishment of causal relationships and patterns, and ensuring the continuity of their results.

b) The relationship between scientific and everyday psychology

actively penetrate each other (ZhP lags behind NP by 100 years, but is its basis, foundation);

practical psychologist = everyday psychologist (coincide in one person)

8. Human psyche and its functions.

Etymologically, the word “psyche” (Greek soul) has a dual meaning. One meaning carries the semantic load of the essence of a thing. The psyche is the essence where the externality and diversity of nature gathers into its unity, it is a virtual compression of nature, it is a reflection of the objective world in its connections and relationships

Mental reflection is not a mirror, mechanically passive copying of the world (like a mirror or a camera), it is associated with a search, a choice; in mental reflection, incoming information is subjected to specific processing, i.e. mental reflection is an active reflection of the world in connection with some necessity, with needs, it is a subjective selective reflection of the objective world, since it always belongs to the subject, does not exist outside the subject, depends on subjective characteristics. The psyche is a “subjective image of the objective world.”

The psyche cannot be reduced simply to the nervous system. Mental properties are the result of the neurophysiological activity of the brain, but they contain the characteristics of external objects/and its internal physiological processes through which the mental arises. Signal transformations taking place in the brain are perceived by a person as events taking place outside him, in external space and the world. The brain secretes psyche, thought, just as the liver secretes bile. The disadvantage of this theory is that they identify the psyche with nervous processes and do not see the qualitative differences between them.

Mental phenomena are correlated not with a separate neurophysiological process, but with organized sets of such processes, i.e. the psyche is a systemic quality of the brain, realized through multi-level functional systems of the brain that are formed in a person in the process of life and his mastery of historically established forms of activity and experience humanity through its own active activity. Thus, specifically human qualities (consciousness, speech, work, etc.), the human psyche are formed in a person only during his lifetime, in the process of assimilating the culture created by previous generations. Thus, the human psyche includes at least three components: the external world, nature, its reflection - full-fledged brain activity - interaction with people, the active transmission of human culture and human abilities to new generations.

Mental reflection is characterized by a number of features:

it makes it possible to correctly reflect the surrounding reality, and the correctness of the reflection is confirmed by practice;

the mental image itself is formed in the process of active human activity;

mental reflection deepens and improves;

ensures the appropriateness of behavior and activity;

refracted through a person’s individuality;

is anticipatory.

There are three functions of the psyche: communicative, cognitive and regulatory.

Communicative – provides the opportunity for people to communicate with each other.

Cognitive – allows a person to understand the outside world around him.

The regulatory function ensures the regulation of all types of human activity (play, study, work), as well as all forms of his behavior

The main functions of the human psyche:

function of reflecting objective reality

The mental reflection of reality has its own characteristics:

This is not a dead, mirror, one-act reflection, but a process that is constantly developing and improving, creating and overcoming its contradictions;

With the mental reflection of objective reality, during which any external influence (i.e., the influence of objective reality) is always refracted through previously established features of the psyche, through specific states of a person (therefore, the same external influence can be reflected differently different people and even by the same person at different times and under different conditions); mental reflection is a correct, true reflection of reality (the emerging images of the material world are snapshots, casts, copies of existing objects, phenomena, events).

The subjectivity of mental reflection and the active transformation of what is reflected, characteristic of a person, in no way deny the objective possibility of correctly reflecting the surrounding world. In real life, a person, with the help of his psyche, reflects the influences of reality, records and comprehends them, forming in his mind a real picture of the world, in accordance with which he acts. The mental processes, states, education and properties of people, having a certain flexibility, allow them to adapt to the developing conditions of life and activity, transform them in accordance with their needs and interests.

2) the function of regulation of all life processes in the human body and the interaction of the individual with the external environment

The human psyche and consciousness, on the one hand, reflect the influences of the external environment, adapt to it, and on the other hand, regulate this process, constituting the internal content of activity and behavior. The latter cannot but be mediated by the psyche, since it is with its help that a person realizes motives and needs, sets goals and objectives for activities, and develops ways and techniques to achieve its results. Behavior in this case acts as an external form of manifestation of the psyche.

3) A person’s awareness of his place in the world around him. This function of the psyche, on the one hand, ensures correct adaptation and orientation of a person in the objective world, guaranteeing him an effective understanding of all the realities of this world and an adequate attitude towards them. On the other hand, with the help of the psyche and consciousness, a person realizes himself as a person, endowed with certain individual and socio-psychological characteristics, as a representative of a particular society, social group, different from other people and in unique interpersonal relationships with them. A person’s correct awareness of his personal characteristics at the same time helps him adapt to other people, correctly build communication and interaction with them, achieve common goals in joint activities, and maintain harmony in society as a whole.

In everyday life, an individual is understood as a specific person, with all his inherent characteristics.

4). A person as an individual is considered in the context of his place in society and the performance of specific socially useful activities. At the same time, he differs from other individuals only in his inherent individual and socio-psychological characteristics. The concept of personality reflects both psychophysiological and spiritual (moral) characteristics of a person and includes his individual experience of development and improvement.

Today, domestic psychology interprets personality as a socio-psychological formation that is formed thanks to public life and human activities. A person as a social being acquires new (personal) qualities when he enters into relationships with other people and these relationships become “constitutive” of his personality.

5). Man as a subject of activity. A person is always a subject of specific activity, a source of knowledge and transformation of reality within its framework. Activity is always subjective. The condition for its implementation and the main product is a person who always relates quite definitely to the world around him. His consciousness is determined by the structure of the activity itself, aimed at satisfying needs. The activity itself in this case acts as a form of human activity, allowing him to improve the world, yourself, other people, relationships with them.

9.Structure and multi-level organization of the psyche.

The psyche is complex and diverse in its manifestations. Usually there are three large groups of psychic phenomena, namely:

1) mental processes, 2) mental states, 3) mental properties.

Mental processes are a dynamic reflection of reality in various forms of mental phenomena.

A mental process is the course of a mental phenomenon that has a beginning, development and end, manifesting itself in the form of a reaction. It must be borne in mind that the end of a mental process is closely related to the beginning of a new process. Hence the continuity of mental activity in a person’s waking state.

Mental processes are caused both by external influences and by stimulation of the nervous system coming from the internal environment of the body.

All mental processes are divided into cognitive processes - these include sensations and perceptions, ideas and memory, thinking and imagination; emotional - active and passive experiences; volitional - decision, execution, volitional effort; etc.

Mental processes ensure the formation of knowledge and the primary regulation of human behavior and activity.

In complex mental activity, various processes are connected and form a single stream of consciousness, providing an adequate reflection of reality and the implementation of various types of activities. Mental processes occur with varying speed and intensity depending on the characteristics of external influences and personality states.

A mental state should be understood as a relatively stable level of mental activity that has been determined at a given time, which manifests itself in increased or decreased activity of the individual.

Every person experiences different things every day mental states; In one mental state, mental or physical work is easy and productive, in another it is difficult and ineffective.

Mental states are of a reflex nature:

they arise under the influence of the situation, physiological factors, progress of work, time and verbal influences (praise, blame, etc.),

The most studied are: 1) general mental state, for example attention, manifested at the level of active concentration or absent-mindedness. 2) emotional states or moods (cheerful, enthusiastic, sad, sad, angry, irritable, etc.). There are interesting studies about a special, creative, state of personality, which is called inspiration.

The highest and most stable regulators of mental activity are personality traits.

Mental properties of a person should be understood as stable formations that provide a certain qualitative and quantitative level of activity and behavior typical for a given person.

Each mental property is formed gradually in the process of reflection and is consolidated in practice. It is therefore the result of reflective and practical activity.

Personality traits are diverse, and they need to be classified according to grouping mental processes, on the basis of which they are formed. This means that we can distinguish the properties of intellectual, or cognitive, volitional and emotional activity of a person:

As an example, let's give some intellectual properties - observation, flexibility of mind; strong-willed - determination, perseverance; emotional - sensitivity, tenderness, passion, affectivity, etc.

Mental properties do not exist together, they are synthesized and form complex structural formations of the personality, which must include:

1) a person’s life position (a system of needs, interests, beliefs, ideals that determines a person’s selectivity and level of activity); 2) temperament (a system of natural personality traits - mobility, balance of behavior and activity tone - characterizing the dynamic side of behavior);

abilities (a system of intellectual, volitional and emotional properties that determine the creative capabilities of the individual) and, finally, 4) character as a system of relationships and modes of behavior.

10. Mental - the basic concept of psychology. The specificity of mental phenomena and the difficulties of their study.

The concept of the mental has always been under the strong influence of philosophy, and this natural and irreducible influence was sometimes so strong that the psychological specificity of this concept was erased and its content was significantly impoverished. The frequent identification of the concept of mental phenomena with the philosophical category of consciousness is unlawful and creates additional difficulties in analyzing the essence of the mental.

The category of mental cannot be considered separately from modern psychology with all its branches and sections. The category of the mental is the basic concept of psychology, and as such it should reflect what is general and at the same time specific for all psychological research (more precisely, for the whole variety of goals and results of psychological research). The category of mental is formed and developed on the basis of psychological research and, without connection with the latter, loses its meaning2.

The category of mental in its origin, content and logical functions is a psychological concept and therefore can be comprehended and defined only by identifying the specifics of psychological research. But having accepted this position, we are immediately faced with the first theoretical difficulty of further analysis: the need to determine the specifics of any psychological research, that is, the subject of psychology. A systematic and comprehensive discussion of this issue is an extremely difficult task that cannot be solved within the framework of this work. Therefore, we will try to address the issue of the subject of psychology in the most general terms.

If we sum up the goals of all existing branches of modern psychology, the goals of all multidirectional psychological research, then the overall resulting goal—personality—emerges quite clearly. It is the person as a person who forms the main goal of psychology and its specific subject of research (the fact that one or another of the branches of psychology - for example, social psychology - moves beyond the category of personality and explores some aspects of interpersonal relationships is unlikely to refute this position, because not a single subject of research is strictly limited; the individual is organically connected with the team, and this connection in an abstract form is necessarily included in the concept of the individual as such, at least through the definition of its social nature; that shift in the plane of research that is observed in the border area of ​​each discipline, does not significantly change the core of its subject). The subject of psychology cannot be presented as a monolith, because it is internally dissected in a variety of ways, and it is from the unification of all stable and transforming analytical products that the dynamic whole that is covered by the concept of personality is recreated.

If we agree that the subject of psychology is personality, then through the concept of personality we can outline, to a first approximation, the entire range of mental phenomena. Then the entire set of mental phenomena can be considered as the entire set of personality predicates. In other words, every mental phenomenon is something that is designated as a predicate of personality. This gives the most abstract definition of the category of the mental.

many physiologists, psychologists and philosophers define the mental as a nervous process, as a higher nervous activity. According to P. S. Kupalov, “a mental phenomenon is a complex nervous process” (P. S. Kupalov, 1963, p. 146). This is the first definition. It is sometimes defended quite decisively and with the help of philosophical arguments, as exemplified by the following statement: “The materialistic approach cannot distinguish between the concepts of mental activity and higher nervous activity” (J. Lata, J. Madlafousek, 1960, p. 49). However, we cannot agree with this, since the identification of the concepts of mental and higher nervous activity is necessary only from the standpoint of vulgar materialism and essentially leads to the elimination of the specificity of mental phenomena, to the elimination of psychology, albeit an imaginary one.

Let's see how logically legitimate the definition given by P. S. Kupalov is. The rational point contained in this definition is to indicate the necessary connection of a mental phenomenon with a complex nervous process. This emphasizes an essential common feature of all mental phenomena, but by no means their specific feature. For not every complex nervous process is a mental phenomenon (that is, it is necessarily associated with a mental phenomenon), and most importantly, the concept of a nervous process in itself does not grasp at all, and misses such properties of mental phenomena as subjectivity and objective content. Let's take some simple mental phenomenon, say, a feeling of blue color. To determine the originality of this phenomenon, will it be enough to say that it is a nervous process? When we experience the sensation of blue, is the neural process responsible for this subjective state also blue? Even if we find out in every detail what happens in our brain when we experience the sensation of blue, then in this case the statement that the sensation of blue is a nervous process will turn out to be incorrect, because we will receive a neurodynamic equivalent, and not the subjective reflection of the property itself an external object directly given to the individual. The definition of a mental phenomenon as a complex nervous process bypasses precisely what is original in a mental phenomenon and therefore cannot be considered satisfactory.

Any science has theoretical and practical aspects. Theory studies patterns, while the practical part is responsible for applying the accumulated knowledge in life, in practice. Psychology is no exception. Thus, it turns out that practical psychology studies the practical use of this science.

Practical psychology - what is it?

Let us immediately note that practical psychology is, first of all, a branch of science. Therefore, those who confuse it with the psychology of everyday life, everyday life, etc. are mistaken. It occupies an important place in the social sphere and is used in working with people.

Practical psychology earlier, until the 19th century, was called experimental and focused exclusively in the field of psychology itself. Therefore, it should not be confused with such a concept as applied psychology, which concentrates on other, albeit related areas, and is used in more specific areas, for example, in education, advertising, etc. In other words, practical psychology practices psychology itself, and applied - other areas. At the same time, if practical psychologists speak to people in simple, accessible language, then applied psychology is full of dry information and special terms.

Problems and application of practical psychology

In practical psychology there is a problem of theory being ahead of practice, which occurs in any scientific fields. This problem gives rise to virtually unproven hypotheses. In psychology, such gaps are filled by metaphors - techniques that work but are not explained theoretically. The main unresolved problem of practical psychology is that the theoretical base is not enough to meet the needs of the real world. The following tasks arise from the problem:

• personal psychological consultations with clients seeking help;
• group trainings in various fields, including corporate;
• security social spheres from a psychological point of view.

Skills of practical psychology or psychoanalyst to a client who needs appropriate help. The difficulty lies in the fact that people’s problems are always individual and associated with a huge number of nuances and subtleties. Therefore, every practical psychologist is looking for a solution to a particular problem, guided by his own experience and accumulated knowledge, using various techniques, combining them in search of the optimal mechanism. Experts help you understand common problems clients, such as personal development, education, and in fairly narrow areas: business problems, time management, personal success.

The methods that practical psychologists use when working with clients are divided into two groups:

1. Individual, which are associated with working one-on-one with a person, this includes psychoanalysis.
2. Group, which involve the work of a psychologist in groups of people, usually with similar problems. Classes are held in the form of trainings, group therapies with various features.

Practical psychologist as a way of life and profession

A practical psychologist is a profession like any other. To choose it for yourself, a person must be able to understand people well, or, according to at least, want to learn this. - this is a calling. You need to be able to immerse yourself in another person’s problem, without taking it to heart, in order to be able to help resolve the current situation.

Many people have a natural talent as a psychologist. They help friends, relatives, and colleagues. Moreover, such people do not have a psychological education, a knowledge base that could be added to the talent inherent in nature. It is not at all necessary for such a person to receive this education. If he simply likes to help close and distant people, look for a solution to their problem and rejoice with them in the positive result - this is his choice. Of course, a person in such a situation can only be called a practical psychologist in his circle of friends. Those around him and he himself must understand that with serious problems you still need to contact a person with a psychologist’s education, for example, a psychologist-hypnologist Baturin Nikita Valerievich, because on an intuitive level, without appropriate training and a knowledge base, it is impossible to solve them, but you can make things worse.

If a person nevertheless decides that practical psychology is the field in which he wants to work and earn money and is ready to develop, then he needs to receive the appropriate education. It doesn’t matter at what age the future specialist decided this for himself. Education as a psychologist is obtained in several ways. This is the classic first higher education, obtained by day or by correspondence, and a second higher education degree, which can be obtained even remotely. In addition, there are many opportunities to get special education by retraining from a related field, etc.

How can a person with such an education work? The main professions here are:

• psychotherapist;
• coach;
• psychologist-trainer.

At the same time, a psychotherapist is a purely medical profession. That is, practical psychologists here provide assistance to the health of the client who applies, right up to getting rid of addictions. The task of coaches and trainers is to motivate and push people, both individually and in groups, to develop their personality as a whole, certain qualities, for example, leadership, and solve various problems related to this. As an example, we can cite the now fashionable trend of psychologists-trainers in the business environment, when they help people find the courage and determination to take the first step in creating their own business.

There is a growing popularity of practical psychology in our country. This is due to a sharp increase in stress in people of all age and social categories, an acceleration of the rhythm of life, the emergence huge amount new opportunities with limited material resources for the majority of the population. People more often think about what they would really like to become, both in their profession and in life in general, in order to receive satisfaction and pleasure from life. Due to the same acceleration of the rhythm in cities and a number of other reasons associated with modernity, it has become more difficult for people to get acquainted with the goal of starting long-term love romantic relationships, which will later flow into creating a family, which will still need to be made stronger. But this need has not gone away. People are increasingly faced with problems that only a competent practical psychologist can help solve, and they are turning to them more often. Social realities change, but the human needs that we remember from the time of Maslow remain the same.

The solution to all of the above problems is the most important task, which practical psychology is designed to solve. Based on what we see around us now, we can say with confidence that this science has a great future, and practical psychologists will be in more and more demand.

1. Origin and definition of the concept of “psychology”.

Psychology is the science of patterns, features of the generation, functioning and development of the psyche

The word “psychology” translated from ancient Greek literally means “the science of the soul” (psyche-"soul", logos -"concept", "teaching"). The term “psychology” first appeared in scientific use in the 16th century. Initially, it belonged to a special science that studied the so-called mental, or mental, phenomena, that is, those that every person easily detects in his own consciousness as a result of introspection. Later, in the XVII -XI X centuries. the area studied by psychology is expanding and includes not only conscious, but also unconscious phenomena. Thus, Psychology is the science of the psyche and mental phenomena.

2. When and by whom were the first attempts made to theoretically understand the phenomenon of the human psyche?

The term “psychology” was first introduced into philosophical language in the 18th century by the German philosopher Christian Wolf(1679-1754) in his books “Rational Psychology” and “Empirical Psychology” in 1732-1734.

3. The main stages in the development of psychology as a science.

Psychology has come a long way in development; there has been a change in the understanding of the object, subject and goals of psychology. Let us note the main stages of its development.

• Stage I - psychology as the science of the soul. This definition of psychology was given more than two thousand years ago. They tried to explain all the incomprehensible phenomena in human life by the presence of a soul.
• Stage II - psychology as the science of consciousness. It appears in the 17th century in connection with the development of natural sciences. The ability to think, feel, desire was called consciousness. The main method of study was a person's observation of himself and the description of facts.
• Stage III - psychology as a science of behavior. Appears in the 20th century. The task of psychology is to set up experiments and observe what can be directly seen, namely: behavior, actions, human reactions (the motives causing actions were not taken into account).
• Stage IV - psychology as a science that studies objective patterns, manifestations and mechanisms of the psyche.

Psychology is defined as Scientific research behavior and internal mental processes and practical application of acquired knowledge.

Psychology studies the world of subjective (mental) phenomena, processes and states, conscious or unconscious of the person himself.

4. What was considered the subject of studying psychology at the first stage of its formation?

Initially, the subject of study is the so-called mental or mental phenomena, i.e. those that every person easily detects in his own consciousness as a result of introspection.

5. Why did consciousness become considered the subject of psychology?

At the end of the 19th century. R. Descartes put forward a postulate stating that the first thing a person discovers in himself is his own consciousness. The existence of consciousness is the main and unconditional fact, and the main task of psychology is to analyze the state and content of consciousness. Thus, the “new psychology”, having adopted the spirit of Descartes’ ideas, made consciousness its subject. Consciousness, according to Descartes, is the beginning of all principles in philosophy and science.

6. Representatives of which psychological school declared behavior to be the subject of study of psychology?

Let us consider, first of all, the so-called structural school - a direct heir to the direction whose leader was W. Wundt. Its representatives called themselves structuralists, as they considered the main task of psychology pilot study structures of consciousness. The concept of structure presupposes elements and their connection, so the school’s efforts were aimed at finding the initial ingredients of the psyche (identified with consciousness) and ways to structure them

7. How the subject is understood psychological science on modern stage development?

Currently, there are two views on the subject of psychology. According to the first of them, the subject of studying psychology is mental processes, mental states and mental properties of the individual. According to the second, the subject of this science is facts of mental life, psychological laws and mechanisms of mental activity.

psychology – the science of the laws of mental development, i.e. science, subject which is the psyche of an animal or a person.

8. When and why did psychology receive the status of a science?

Developing at first as one of the philosophical disciplines, psychology then, having adopted a number of ideas from experimental physiology, emerged as an independent science, which set the task of studying the soul, which at that time was understood as consciousness (and consciousness as what a person is directly aware of). This happened in late XIX century, and the symbolic date of birth of psychology as an independent discipline is considered to be 1879, when Wilhelm Wundt opened a laboratory of experimental psychology at the Department of Philosophy of the University of Leipzig, and soon on its basis - the world's first psychological institute, which still exists today. Soon, similar laboratories and institutes began to open in leading countries of the world (in Russia, the USA, France, and other cities in Germany) - the so-called academic psychology, that is, research psychology, which set itself actual cognitive tasks.

9. What areas scientific knowledge provided greatest influence on the development and establishment of psychology as a science?

The emergence of psychology as an independent, truly scientific discipline also occurred against the background of discoveries that were made within the framework of natural science research. Psychology arose at the intersection of two large areas of knowledge - philosophy and natural sciences, and it has not yet been determined whether to consider it natural science or humanitarian.

Among the sciences, modern psychology occupies an intermediate position between the philosophical, natural and social sciences. It integrates all the data of these sciences and, in turn, influences them, becoming a general model of human knowledge. The focus of psychology always remains the person, whom all the above-mentioned sciences study in other aspects.

10. Due to the presence of what features is psychology considered a science?

The identification of psychology as a separate science and psychological practice began in the second half of the 19th century (especially in the 60-70s). Great importance acquired empirical methods for studying mental phenomena, especially experiment. Psychological research increasingly used measurements, which became important criterion scientific character. After organizing the first psychological laboratory In Leipzig, such laboratories began to open throughout Germany, and then in other cities in Europe and the USA. Outstanding scientists who contributed to the formation of psychology as an independent science were: Fechner, Ebbinghaus, Wundt, Titchener, Lazursky, Bekhterev, Brentano, Stumpf, James, Sechenov, Pavlov, Freud.

11. What are specific features psychology as a science.

A person, his mental, conscious life is at the same time here both a subject (as in other sciences) and an object of knowledge. It follows from this that a certain knowledge of the laws established by science has already been given to the object being studied in its internal experience, representation - “on itself”.

12. The difference between scientific knowledge and other types of knowledge.

SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE

This is a special type of cognitive activity aimed at developing new, systematized, objective knowledge, the process of transition of the logic of being (essence, laws) into the logic of thinking, during which new knowledge is acquired. Cognitive activity is a process of active reflection of reality by a social subject, and not its mechanical, mirror copying. Scientific knowledge is based on the principles of scientific rationality, carried out by professionally trained people (see scientific community), based on strictly defined rules, norms, methods for a specific area (see methods of scientific knowledge, paradigm, research program). The results of scientific research, in contrast to the knowledge of everyday life, are universal; they reveal the essence of the subject being studied, the laws of its functioning and development. Unlike esoteric knowledge, scientific knowledge has a universally valid character and is devoid of dogmatism (see levels of scientific knowledge, forms of scientific knowledge). Scientific knowledge is carried out according to the laws of objective reality. Universal (dialectical) laws of the development of being and scientific knowledge (thinking) are two series of laws, identical in essence and different in their expression. Man, as a subject of scientific knowledge, applies these laws consciously, while in nature they are implemented unconsciously.

13. Characteristics of everyday psychology.

They have the following main distinctive characteristics:

· Specificity, i.e. attachment to specific situations, specific people, specific tasks human activity;

· Intuition, indicating a lack of awareness of their origin and patterns of functioning;

· Limited, i.e. weak human ideas about the specifics and areas of functioning of specific psychological phenomena;

· Based on observations and reflections, which means that ordinary psychological knowledge is not subject to scientific comprehension;

· Lack of material, i.e. a person who has certain everyday psychological observations cannot compare them with similar ones from hundreds of other people in order to draw the right conclusions.

drawing on life experience and common sense

the plausibility and usefulness of this knowledge in life situations

fragmentation of everyday psychological knowledge - intuitive nature
accessibility of presentation and clarity
inaccuracy of the concepts used

14. Whom did the German philosopher Wilhelm Dilthey consider to be good everyday psychologists?

The German philosopher Wilhelm Dilthey (1833-1911) believed that good psychologists are writers, historians, and actors. He hoped for the emergence of a psychology capable of capturing in the network of its descriptions what was contained more in the works of poets and writers than in the teachings about the soul that existed at that time.

15. Ordinary psychology.

Everyday (or everyday) psychology - This is psychological knowledge gleaned by people from everyday life.

16. Characteristics of scientific psychology.

Scientific psychology – This is stable psychological knowledge obtained in the process of theoretical and experimental study of the psyche of people and animals. Scientific psychology has its own characteristics:

Generality, those. the meaningfulness of a specific psychological phenomenon based on the specifics of its manifestation in many people, in many conditions, in relation to many tasks of human activity;

Rationalism, indicating that scientific psychological knowledge has been maximally researched, conscious and justified by laws;

Unlimited, i.e. the ability of knowledge to be used by many people;

Experimental basis, scientific psychological knowledge has been studied in various conditions, based on numerous experiments and experiments and proven;

Sufficiency of materials, this means that knowledge about the laws and patterns of mental functioning was obtained based on the study of a huge number of people;

Character N.P.:
objectivity, support and empiricalness (experience), scientific facts
rationality and awareness
empirical and logical evidence
generalization and identification of general patterns
systematicity in describing the facts of psychological life
reliance on scientific concepts

17. Is there a connection between everyday and scientific psychology?

Fundamental scientific psychology interacts quite closely with everyday psychology: suffice it to say that at first almost the entire terminological minimum of psychological science was taken from natural language.

18. Can psychology be characterized as a purely theoretical or applied science?

19. Characteristics of psychology as a field of scientific activity (academic psychology).

Scientific (academic) psychology- generalized, natural knowledge about people, obtained by a group of people - scientists who tested this knowledge for accuracy using special methods.

20. Characteristics of psychology as a field of practical activity (practical psychology).

Practical (applied) psychology- a direction of scientific psychology, the subject of which is the individuality, uniqueness of a person in the specific circumstances of his life, and the goal is to provide psychological assistance to a specific person on the basis of generalized scientific knowledge.

Talking about tasks of practical psychology, different ones should be distinguished levels:

1) research tasks are associated with solving problems of studying the patterns of development and personality formation in order to develop methodological foundations for the activities of a practical psychologist, ways, means and methods of professional application of psychological knowledge in the conditions of various social systems;

2) applied problems practical psychology are dictated by the need for psychological support for the optimal functioning of institutions And organizations, the work of personnel and individuals, which involves the preparation of special training programs, the creation of textbooks and teaching aids in practical psychology, development of psychological recommendations and teaching materials, training and retraining programs for personnel, psychological justification for the activities of practical psychology services, creation of draft normative documents for such activities;

3) practical problems are determined by specific problems directly at the place of professional activity of the psychologist: in institutions and organizations of various profiles, in specialized psychological offices and centers - in the form of providing psychological assistance to specific people.

21. What place among modern sciences does parapsychology occupy?

applied Science

Practical psychology is a section of psychological science dedicated to practical application psychological knowledge, however, in contrast to applied psychology, is aimed at working with the general public, and not with specialist psychologists. Practical psychology is also different from popular psychology, which primarily aims to entertain its audience. Just as Prometheus gave people fire, practical psychologists gave people the useful and important things that scientific psychology had accumulated over the years of its existence.

Three layers of psychology

Each section of psychology (personality psychology, developmental psychology, educational psychology etc.) there are three layers of work:

theory, applied layer and practical

Thus, practical psychology does not study the psyche, but works with it, influences it. Practical psychology deals with a specific object, a specific person, and not with abstract generalizations. The goal is to help the individual understand himself, find a way out difficult situation, achieve success (in work, family relationships, sports). To achieve this goal, practical psychology uses the knowledge and methods of the entire body of psychological knowledge.

What does a practical psychologist do?

When contacting a practical psychologist, you should not confuse him with a doctor, educator or confessor. The psychologist will not offer you simple solution your problem, a ready-made “pill”. He won't tell you how you should behave in a given situation. For successful interaction between the client and practical psychologist the client's willingness to change something is required. Without the consent and participation of the individual, not a single psychologist, even the most brilliant, can help.

Practical psychology is:

• educational work - when psychological theories reach the masses in a language accessible to the unprepared public;
• psychological services, including career guidance, psychological rehabilitation, counseling, psychodiagnostics, corrective work and others;
• trainings, for example, on sales, negotiations, resolving family conflicts and others;
• books on psychology, adapted for a wide readership.

The easiest way to familiarize yourself with the basics of practical psychology is to read books on this discipline. Such publications are always on the bestseller lists, because they attract the widest sections of the reading public. Books on psychology are read even by those who are not interested in fiction. Examples of popular books on practical psychology: S. Covey “7 Habits of Highly Effective People”, M. Viking “The Secret of Danish Happiness”, R. Cialdini “Psychology of Influence”, D. Carnegie “How to Stop Worrying and Start Living”.

Areas and methods of practical psychology

Independent areas of practical psychology:

• psychological testing;
• psychological counseling;
• psychological correction.

Individual and group methods of practical psychology are used. Individual ones include psychoanalysis, auto-training, logotherapy, group ones include gestalt groups, meetings of people with certain problems (“Alcoholics Anonymous,” for example), art therapy and many others.

Like any mass product, PP has its own fashion trends. Today, time management is one of the current areas of practical psychology ( practical recommendations to optimize your time), neuro-linguistic programming (NLP) is a theoretically unsubstantiated technique based on copying verbal and nonverbal behavior successful individuals. The activities of some training centers may be regarded by some people as sectarianism. For example, the Russian Orthodox Church calls the activities of the Sinton training center (organizes on-site trainings on personal and business development) destructive.

Application of practical psychology

Practical psychology serves the needs of business (organizational, personnel management), and also helps in the private lives of people (individual/family counseling).

Practical psychology works along 4 main vectors:

1. psychology of individuality;
2. psychology of relationships in a group;
3. psychology professional activity;
4. psychology of personal life.

Knowledge and skills of practical psychology help in the work of HR department employees in personnel selection, managers, coaches and business trainers, sales and marketing specialists.

Today practical psychology is profitable business. The Internet is replete with offers of trainings that will turn you into leaders and give you comfort. family relations, will solve internal conflicts, teach the basics of NLP. Some of them are carried out by charlatans, others bring tangible benefits. Therefore, when choosing a course, you need to approach it sensibly and critically evaluate the judgments of trainers, “think with your own mind,” taking information into account, but not perceiving it as an unconditional guide to action.

Practical psychology contributes a lot to the development of the theory of science. Scientific hypotheses require evidence, which can be obtained using methods of practical psychology. Of course, many psychological methods do not have a solid scientific basis, but this does not mean that after some time they will not be justified. Most of the founders of the theoretical concept were practicing psychologists.

Knowledge and skills in the field of practical psychology will help in self-knowledge and self-education, qualitative improvement of life, harmonization of family relationships, achieving good results at work, and building a career.

Practical psychology as a science

1936 Practical Psychology 1. People begin to appear who call themselves practical psychologists and offer society very specific types of services - determining a child’s readiness for school; psychological support for business plans; psychological characteristics of members of work teams and the forecast of their compatibility, etc.

Stages of development of practical psychology:

Stage 1(1900-1907) the emergence of pedology, the emergence of the first theories and studies of the mental development of children,

Stage 2(1908-1917) emergence of the first psychological centers

Stage 3(1918-1924) formation of practical child psychology,

Stage 4 Stage 5(1929-1931) intensive development of domestic child psychology and pedology, the emergence of theories revealing the patterns and mechanisms of mental development (M. Basov, L. Vygotsky)

Stage 6(1932-1936) elimination in school and public practice of interest in the child’s personality, to creativity, criticism of pedology at the administrative level

Stage 7(1940-1960) revival of domestic child psychology: studies of educational motivation, psychology of schoolchildren’s education, problems of giftedness, etc.

Stage 8(1981-1988) experiment on introduction to Russian schools positions of practical psychologist

The psychologist works with the client’s important “material” - psychological information.

Main activities of a practical psychologist

Psychoeducation and Psychoprophylaxis, psychodiagnostics.Psychological correction Psychological counseling Psychotherapy

The psychological service carries out its activities in close contact with parents or persons replacing them, with guardianship and trusteeship authorities, juvenile affairs inspectorates, representatives public organizations, providing educational institutions with assistance in the upbringing and development of children and adolescents. To ensure the successful operation of the service, creative contacts with medical institutions are necessary.

The main goal of psychological service education - the psychological health of children - is associated primarily with the promising direction of its activities, focused on the timely and complete mental and personal development of each child. This goal can be realized only when the psychological service ensures continuity of psychological attention to the child at different age stages of working with children, when the ideas, understanding, and skills of adults working with children of the same age and adults working with children of a different age are combined.

The main tasks of the educational psychological service: 1) development of individual characteristics of children - interests, abilities, inclinations, feelings, relationships, hobbies, life plans, etc.; 3) creating a development-friendly environment for the child psychological climate(V kindergarten, boarding school, school, etc.), 4) providing timely mental health assistance and support to both children and their parents, educators, and teachers. Models of work of psychologists in education

First model. The psychologist consults with students, their parents and teachers regarding their treatment. Second model. Added to the previous one: diagnostics of children of different ages at the request of the administration educational institution and individual teachers, attending classes at the request of teachers in order to develop recommendations for working with specific children.

Third model. Includes conducting educational seminars and trainings with students and teachers. The psychologist sets the task of changing behavioral stereotypes, methods and forms of organizing communication between teachers and students

Functions of a psychologist

5. carries out work to develop children’s abilities

Job responsibilities of a practical psychologist :

1. be a psychological service;

2. take care of the psychological health of the individual;

3. conduct regular research to monitor mental development;

4. identify people in need of psychological help;

5. conduct enlightenment among students, parents, teachers;

6. identified persons at psychological risk;

7. carry out psychodiagnostic work

8. bears legal responsibility for the correctness of the conclusions and recommendations issued.

Job responsibilities :

1. Identified persons in need of mental assistance, their registration and control.

2. Conducts enlightenment among students, parents, teachers.

3. Participates in seminars for psychologists.

4. Conducts consulting work.

5. Conducts psychoprophylactic work, identifies people at psychological risk

6.Responsible for the correctness of documentation. Keeps records of work results in accordance with established forms.

Prof. Training in the specialty “Psychology” is carried out at universities. term – 5 years

General requirements to a specialist:

1.professional competence, good knowledge of your subject

2.humanistic orientation

3.high morality

4.ability for sympathy (empathy)

5.creativity (the ability to think creatively)

6.communication skills (ability to communicate, establish interpersonal relationships)

7.organize workplace

8. tact

9. intelligence.

Official duties:

1. is an employee of a mental health service

2. takes care of mental health personalities

3. conducts regular mass examinations of mental development

4. conducts educational work among students and parents

5. carries out work to develop children's abilities.

4. Specifics of psychologists in correctional institutions. Organization of the work of a psychologist at enterprises and firms.

The task of the correctional institution psychologist is to assist the director of the correctional institution in relation to convicts. Convicted “risk groups” require especially close attention. It can be :

Convicts whose adaptation to living conditions in a correctional facility is difficult and painful;

Convicted women with an affective psyche and a subjective attitude towards serving their sentence;

In relation to each convicted person of a negative nature, it is necessary to apply strictly differentiated methods of influence.

Services provided by a psychologist :

Individual psychological consultation (but for a wide range of issues and problems);

Family psychological consultation (consultation married couples, non-family couples, non-traditional couples);

Individual psychological assistance, psychocorrection;

Family psychological assistance, psychocorrection;

Individual psychological training;

Family psychological training;

Psychodiagnostics and tests (psychological examination with issuance of a package of documents and consultation with a psychologist based on the results).

A practical psychologist in an organization performs several functions:

Research (expert);

Consulting;

Pedagogical;

Educational.

A psychologist in an organization solves the following tasks:

1) vocational guidance and consulting;

2) social and psychological training of personnel and advanced training of employees;

3) acceleration of employee adaptation processes in the organization;

4) interaction between the manager and subordinates;

5) description job responsibilities, drawing up professional plans;

6) study of working conditions and organization of workplaces;

7) prevention and resolution of conflicts;

8) increasing labor discipline;

5 . Requirements for maintaining and processing documents of a practical psychologist.

There is no strict regulation regarding the documentation of the work of a practical psychologist as such.

Consulting in education can be carried out in various areas: consulting children on their problems, parents, teachers and educators when they are faced with problems in teaching and raising children or problems in relationships with children,

Goals and objectives Psychological counseling can be defined in different ways - depending on the approach to psychological counseling within which we prefer to work.

Main target psychological counseling - provision psychological assistance, that is, a conversation with a psychologist should help a person solve his problems and establish relationships with others. In relation to this goal, the following are put forward: tasks: 1. Listening to the client, as a result of which his understanding of himself and his own situation should expand, and food for thought should arise. 2.Relief emotional state client, that is, thanks to the work of a psychologist-consultant, the client should feel better. 3.Acceptance by the client of responsibility for what happens to him. This means that during the consultation, the focus of the client’s complaint should be transferred to himself, the person should feel responsible and guilty for what is happening, only in this case will he really try to change and change the situation, otherwise he will only expect help and changes from others. The minimum program here is to show the client that he himself, at least in part, contributes to the fact that his problems and relationships with people are of such a complex and negative nature. 4. Help from a psychologist in determining what exactly and how can be changed in the situation.

In some cases, there is a need for psychological telephone consultations. Telephone consultations are carried out:

When a client calls the school psychologist with an urgent issue;

To clarify whether he entered the department correctly. situations;

If an unexpected crisis situation arises in the client’s life;

If the client is unable to attend an in-person consultation due to health reasons

Ten rules for psychological counseling over the phone

Psychological counseling by telephone is organized taking into account certain rules.

Rule 1. “Remember the limitations.”

Rule 3. “Rhythm is the basis of conversation”: the presence of pauses on the part of the psychologist so that the client has the opportunity to fully speak out and independently think through the difficult moments of his situation.

Rule 4. “Know how to start a telephone consultation correctly.” Where to start with psychological consultation over the phone? "Hello!", "Good afternoon

Rule 5. “Offer a solution.” After clarifying the client’s situation, the psychologist determines the purpose of the consultation. “I understand your situation and can help you by listening to you” (the purpose of the consultation is to reassure the client).

Rule 6. “Don’t delay the consultation.” The duration of a psychological consultation by telephone should be no more than 25-40 minutes.

Rule 7. “Listen and support.” "I understand you..."

Rule 8. “Joining a client means internally (in intonation) and externally (when constructing a conversation) to reflect the behavior of your client, to carry out synchronous verbal movement with him.

Rule 9. "Customer management." Despite the fact that the client usually talks quite a lot on the phone, the leading initiative in the conversation should belong to the psychologist.

Rule 10. “Emotional positivity * motivation to action.” Psychological consultation It is important to end the phone call by consolidating the client’s emotional-positive state: reducing his anxiety, calming him down and forming his optimistic attitude towards solving the problem. At the same time, it is also necessary to leave the conversation open and not completely completed so that the client has an incentive to actively, independent decision own problem.

Confident client.

Types of psychocorrection

Symptomatic correction– short-term exposure to relieve acute symptoms of developmental disorders.

Causal correction– aimed at the sources and causes of deviations. Long lasting.

Individual– a psychologist works with a client one on one.

Microgroup– work in a microgroup (2-4 people), where people have similar problems.

Group form– targeted use of group dynamics, the entire set of relationships that arise among group members, including the psychologist.

Mixed form– allows you to implement A complex approach to problem solving

General-measures aimed at normalizing the client’s microenvironment, regulating psychophysical and emotional stress Private – a set of special techniques and methods based on the leading forms of activity for a certain age, levels of communication, ways of thinking and self-regulation.

Special– a set of techniques that are the most effective for achieving specific tasks of personality formation.

Client is a normal, physically and mentally healthy person who has had psychological or behavioral problems in his life. He is not able to resolve them on his own and therefore needs outside help.

District training. Page, purpose

training- active learning method and psychological impact carried out in the process of group interaction and aimed at increasing competence in the field of communication.

The training is carried out both with groups specially selected for this purpose, and with actually existing groups, as well as in families. SPT is carried out in groups of 8-12 people under the guidance of a psychologist who has undergone special training.

The usual cycle of classes is designed for 30-50 hours, but its duration can be varied depending on the nature of the problems being solved. At the same time, experience shows that short sessions (less than 20-24 hours) do not allow for the full implementation of the optimal SPT program and reduce its effectiveness.

Classes can be held at intervals of 1-3 days and average duration each lesson is 3 hours. But a more effective form of organizing work is a marathon - several classes in a row for 8-10 hours of continuous work.

In the process of SPT, various methodological techniques are used: group discussion, role-playing game, non-verbal exercises, etc. T's performance decisive degree depends on adherence to generally accepted principles in the group. The main ones : activity in class, the principle of open feedback, the “here and now” principle, trust in communication.

Group discussion method.

Discussion(research, consideration) - consists of a collective discussion of any issue, problem or comparison of information, ideas, opinions, proposals. The purposes of the discussion can be very diverse: education, training, diagnostics, transformation, changing attitudes, stimulating creativity, etc. For adolescents, these debates are more heated than for adults, but they are also easier to change. Two or more people can take part in the discussion. The most constructive option is 6-8 people. Classes are structured in such a way that the discussion participants speak more than the trainer/teacher. The group discussion method can also be carried out using the Internet.

Brainstorming method(brainstorming is a method of solving a problem based on stimulating creative activity, in which discussion participants are asked to express as many possible solutions as possible, including the most fantastic ones. Used in dead-end or problematic situations. The essence of the method is is that the process of putting forward, proposing ideas is separated from the process of their critical evaluation and selection. In addition, various techniques are used to “turn on” fantasy to better use “purely human” potential in finding solutions. For example, sometimes it is used to involve non-specialists who, due to ignorance, can make “crazy” proposals, which in turn stimulate the imagination of “specialists.” The optimal composition of the group is from 6 to 12 people.

The purpose of brainstorming is to create new ideas, get a better idea or The best decision, as well as searching for the widest possible range of directions for solving the problem.

The main task is to develop the largest possible number and maximum variety of quality ideas suitable for solving the problem posed. Groups of 7-11 people are considered optimal.

ROLE-PLAYING GAME- this is a good development of behavior options in situations in which seminar participants may find themselves. For example, it’s a good idea to try re-enacting a situation where a group of friends persuades a teenager to try a drug (this exercise is described below). The game will allow you to acquire skills in making responsible and safe decisions in life. In a role-playing game, the participant plays the role of a character rather than his or her own. This helps a person to experiment freely and not be afraid that his behavior will be stupid.

1) Role-playing game must be meaningful to the participants.

2) It is necessary to take situations that can be resolved within the framework of the training.

3) - it is important to choose those individuals whom the group focuses on;

It is better to leave the unsure ones alone - they will join in based on the example of others;

In the first games it is better to include people who are more confident;

The skills and abilities obtained as a result of the business game have a higher degree of assimilation compared to other traditional teaching methods.

The goal and task of correctional work clearly outlines the fundamental psychological and pedagogical position in relation to children: not to adjust the child to this or that educational system, and this educational system itself should be adjusted in such a way that it ensures a sufficiently high level of development, upbringing and education of all children.

3. BASIC PRINCIPLES OF PSYCHOLOGICAL AND PEDAGOGICAL CORRECTION

The basic principles of psychocorrectional work in our country are based on the fundamental principles developed in domestic psychology that personality is an integral psychological structure that is formed in the process of a person’s life on the basis of his assimilation social forms consciousness and behavior (B.G. Ananyev, L.I. Bozhovich, L.S. Vygotsky, P.Ya. Galperin, V.V. Davydov, A.V. Zaporozhets, A.N. Leontiev, S.L. Rubinstein, D.B. Elkonin, etc.). The mental development and formation of a child’s personality are possible only in communication with adults and occur primarily in the activity that is leading at this stage of ontogenesis (in preschool childhood - play, in primary school childhood - educational activity). In the presence of certain, strictly thought-out conditions, all healthy children have the ability to develop. Both the educator and the teacher have no reason to explain the failures of their pupils or students to their bad mental development, their lack of abilities, since the development of children is itself largely determined by training, upbringing, communication, and depends on the characteristics of the organization of these processes.

The following can be named as the main conditions for development.

1. Maximum implementation of age-related capabilities and reserves in the work of the teaching staff with students, based on the sensitivity of one or another age period, zone of proximal development, etc.

Yes, in the younger school age The purposeful education and upbringing of the child begins. The main type of his activity is educational activity, which plays an important role in the formation and development of all mental properties and qualities. It is this age that is sensitive for the development of such psychological formations as arbitrariness of mental processes, an internal plan of action, reflection on the ways of one’s behavior, the need for active mental activity or a tendency to cognitive activity, and the mastery of educational skills. In other words, by the end of primary school age, a child should be able to learn, want to learn, believe in his abilities and have a passion for school and learning. positive feelings(in any case, school should not cause him disgust and fear).

The best basis for successful learning and development of a child is the harmonious correspondence of educational and intellectual skills and abilities to such personality parameters as self-esteem, cognitive and educational motivation. This correspondence is laid precisely at primary school age. Almost all problems (including underachievement, academic overload, etc.) that arise at subsequent stages of education are explained by the fact that the child either does not know how to study, or learning is not interesting to him, and his prospects are not visible.

2. Development in the educational process of individual characteristics of students within each age period - interests, inclinations, self-awareness (self-esteem, sexual identity, etc.), orientation, value orientations, life plans, etc.

The problem of individual differences is very complex. It is difficult to name at least one property, trait, or quality of a person that would not be included in the scope of this problem. It is known that children in the same class are very different from each other, and this is wonderful. The sameness of children should worry and alert the teacher: something is wrong here.

However, the central point in a person’s individual characteristics is his abilities.

There is a huge variety of activities, each of which requires certain abilities for its implementation at a sufficiently high level. The formation of abilities has its own characteristics at each age stage and is closely related to the development of the child’s interests, self-assessment of his successes and failures in a particular activity. The mental and personal development of a child is impossible without the development of his abilities. The development of abilities and personality development are interdependent processes. There are no children who are incapable of anything. All children are capable of learning, every healthy child is able to receive a general secondary education and master the material school curriculum. However, each child has his own path to developing abilities.

The formation and development of abilities requires patience on the part of adults, attention and careful attitude towards the slightest successes of the child. This is exactly what adults often lack! And they soothe their conscience with the common formula that ability is the exception, not the rule. But if education does not develop the child’s abilities, it is not education, it is some kind of organized pastime.

3. Creation at school of a psychological climate favorable for the development of children, which is determined primarily by productive communication, interaction between the child and teachers, the child and peers.

Meaningful communication is less oriented toward any kind of evaluation or evaluative situations; It is characterized by non-judgment. The highest value in communication is another person with whom we communicate, a person of any age (even small), with all his qualities, properties, moods, etc. The main thing in communication is respect for the right of another person (child, adult) to his individuality , already established or just emerging.

In the lower grades, the nature of the teacher’s communication with schoolchildren forms in children a different attitude towards his personality: positive, in which the student accepts the personality of the teacher, showing goodwill and openness in communicating with him; negative, in which the student does not accept the teacher’s personality, showing aggressiveness, rudeness or withdrawal in communication with him; indefinite, in which children have a contradiction between rejection of the teacher’s personality and a hidden but acute interest in him. The teacher should not be offended by the children’s unpleasant attitude towards themselves, but try to understand the reason for such an attitude. An adult should always take the blame for a dysfunctional relationship with a child. A professional analysis by the teacher of his words, actions, and experiences will help to grasp the reason for the disruption of contact with the child and restore this contact, which is very important for the normal educational process. After all, there is a close connection between the characteristics of communication between younger schoolchildren and teachers and the formation of their motives for learning.

A positive attitude and trust in the teacher make the child want to engage in learning activities and contribute to the formation of a cognitive motive for learning.

Negative attitude to the teacher is very rare among younger schoolchildren, but the vague is very common. With this attitude, the formation of cognitive motivation in children is delayed, since the need for confidential communication with the teacher is combined with distrust of him, and, consequently, of the activity in which he is engaged, in some cases - with fear of him. These children are most often withdrawn, vulnerable or, conversely, indifferent, unresponsive to the teacher’s instructions, and lack initiative. When communicating with the teacher, they show forced obedience, humility, and sometimes a desire to adapt. Moreover, usually children themselves do not realize the reasons for their own experiences, unsettlement, and grief; Unfortunately, adults often do not realize this either. First-graders due to insufficient life experience tend to exaggerate and deeply experience the apparent severity of the teacher. This phenomenon is often underestimated by teachers at the very initial stage of children’s education. Meanwhile, this is extremely important: in subsequent grades negative emotions can be consolidated and can be transferred to educational activities in general, to relationships with teachers and friends. As a result, serious deviations in the mental and personal development of schoolchildren may occur.

Failure to comply with the above mental and personal development children in educational process leads to the formation of negative attitude to school, to learning, inadequate attitude towards themselves, towards the people around them. Effective learning and progressive personal development are impossible in such conditions. Correction of these conditions is required. Based on what has been said, we can proceed to the formulation of the basic principles (or starting points) of psychological correction.

The first principle is the unity of correction and development. This means that the decision on the need for correctional work is made only on the basis of a psychological and pedagogical analysis of internal and external conditions child development.

The second principle is the unity of age and individual development. It means individual approach to the child in the context of his age development. Correctional work presupposes knowledge of the basic patterns of mental development, understanding the meaning of successive age stages for the formation of a child’s personality. There are age guidelines for normal development. Normal development is understood as harmonious mental development appropriate to age. This approximate age norm is largely determined by the cultural level and socio-historical requirements of society.

The value of every age is undeniable. It is the full experience of each stage of ontogenesis that guarantees the realization of the development opportunities of a particular age, which is decisive for ensuring all aspects of the formation of a child’s personality. But it should be taken into account that for each specific child, age acts as an individual development option. This is based on the most important psychological principles, which include: gradualism, unevenness of development, the presence of “latent” periods, when development occurs in a hidden form, inaccessible to observation and appears only after some time in the form of a sharp “spurt”, and the duration of these periods is children are different, individual rates of development both as a whole and its individual properties, processes and qualities are different, the uniqueness of the emotional sphere and the strength of the child’s experiences of various life situations, and much more. Therefore, correctional work should be focused on a certain model, a norm of normal development, but should not be the goal of “fitting” each child to this benchmark right now, at this moment. The landmark presupposes a wide field of search and activity both in the space of the child’s capabilities and in the time of their actualization.

The third principle is the unity of diagnosis and developmental correction. The tasks of correctional work can be understood and set only on the basis of a complete diagnosis and assessment of the immediate probabilistic prognosis of development, which is determined based on the child’s zone of proximal development. Correction and development are interdependent. Activities aimed at solving problems of psychological correction can be called diagnostic-corrective or diagnostic-developmental work.

D.B. Elkonin (1981) noted that special diagnostics are needed, aimed not at selecting children, but at monitoring the progress of their mental development in order to correct detected deviations. He emphasized that control over the development process should be especially careful so that the correction of possible developmental deviations begins as early as possible.

Before deciding whether correctional or developmental work with a child is needed, it is necessary to identify the characteristics of his mental development, the formation of certain psychological formations, the correspondence of the level of development of skills, knowledge, skills, personal and interpersonal formations to age guidelines, the requirements of society, etc.

Psychodiagnostics helps to obtain information about the individual psychological characteristics of children, about the learning difficulties experienced by primary schoolchildren, about the age-related dynamics of individual differences in children, including manifestations of sexual dimorphism.

Development in ontogenesis has a complex systemic character. A diagnostic examination allows one to reveal a holistic systemic picture of cause-and-effect relationships, essential relationships between identified signs, symptoms of individual disorders, deviations and their causes.

A psychological diagnosis is made not only based on the results of a psychological examination, but necessarily involves correlating the data obtained with how the identified characteristics manifest themselves in life situations. When making a psychological diagnosis, age-related analysis of the data obtained, taking into account the zone of proximal development of a particular child, is of great importance.

The fourth principle is the activity principle of carrying out correction. This principle determines the choice of means, ways and means of achieving the goal. The activity principle is based on the recognition that it is the active activity of the child himself that is the driving force of development, that at each stage there is a so-called leading activity that most contributes to the development of the child in a given period of ontogenesis, that the development of any human activity (in our case, games and teaching) requires special formation (A.N. Leontyev, P.Ya. Galperin, S.L. Rubinshtein, etc.).

This principle involves carrying out psychological and pedagogical correctional work through the organization of appropriate activities of the child himself in collaboration with an adult. Thus, the child’s own activity, based on interest, curiosity, thirst for search, knowledge and discovery, leads to success in educational activities. Arousing such activity in school is not easy. But without it we can’t talk about any development. You cannot lead a child to success, to the development of abilities through violence, reproaches, decrees, orders... Correction is necessary educational process in terms of changing learning conditions, providing for the possibility of developing the child’s own activity in educational and cognitive activities.

All children are naturally gifted with the ability to develop: the ability to sense and perceive the world around them, the ability to think, speak, reason, imagine, remember, desire, feel, worry, strain, achieve, etc. But these abilities must be developed from the moment the child is born. The correctional efforts of adults both in kindergarten and at school should be precisely aimed at creating conditions for the upbringing and education of children that would fill, if necessary, the gaps and deficiencies in development that arose in the previous years of the child’s life.

Hence the fifth principle - the approach in correctional work to each child as gifted. This principle means that children with whom psychocorrectional work is carried out should not be perceived as “second-class” children. They demand no condescension, no pity, no reduction general level learning, and correcting one’s development to the optimal norm.

Mobilization driving forces development occurs in a child when he feels that an adult believes in him, trusts him, includes him in decisions more and more difficult tasks and problems. At M.M. Prishvin has a very subtle saying: the person you love in me is, of course, better than me: I’m not like that. But you love, and I will try to be better than myself.

The formation of abilities, both general and special, is a very complex process; it has its own characteristics at each age stage and is closely related to the development of the child’s interests and self-assessment of his success in a particular activity. Unformed abilities and interests lead to underdevelopment of the individual. Correcting deficiencies in the development of a child’s abilities and interests is the most important area of ​​psychological and pedagogical work.

PSYCHOTHERAPY, psychological assistance aimed at resolving emotional problems and based primarily on a conversation between a psychotherapist and a person seeking help. People turn to a psychotherapist as having relatively uncomplicated life problems, and with serious mental illness, for example schizophrenia; most often they seek help for severe emotional stress.

In individual psychotherapy as the main tool therapeutic effects The psychotherapist acts, and the psychotherapeutic process takes place in the doctor-patient dyad. In the organizational aspect, individual psychotherapy differs from group psychotherapy (where the psychotherapeutic group also acts as an instrument of therapeutic influence), collective and family psychotherapy. It is used within the framework of almost all conceptual and methodological directions in psychotherapy, which determine the specifics of the psychotherapeutic process, goals and objectives, methods of influence, methodological techniques, type of contact between the patient and the psychotherapist, duration and other variables ind.