Outer side of the nose. How does the inside of a person's nose work? The structure of the human nose. Structural features in children. Clinical anatomy of the paranasal sinuses

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The initial section of the upper respiratory tract consists of three parts.

• Three components of the nose
• external nose
• nasal cavity

paranasal sinuses, which communicate with the nasal cavity through narrow openings

Appearance and external structure of the external nose

External nose External nose

- This is an osteochondral formation, covered with muscles and skin, in appearance resembling a hollow trihedral pyramid of irregular shape. Nasal bones

- This is the paired basis of the external nose. Attached to the nasal part of the frontal bone, they, joining each other in the middle, form the back of the external nose in its upper part. Cartilaginous part of the nose

, being a continuation of the bony skeleton, is firmly fused to the latter and forms the wings and the tip of the nose.

The wing of the nose, in addition to the larger cartilage, includes connective tissue formations from which the posterior sections of the nasal openings are formed. The inner sections of the nostrils are formed by the movable part of the nasal septum - the columella. Muscular skin

. The skin of the external nose has many sebaceous glands (mainly in the lower third of the external nose); a large number of hairs (in the vestibule of the nose) that perform a protective function; as well as an abundance of capillaries and nerve fibers (this explains the pain of nasal injuries). The muscles of the external nose are designed to compress the nasal openings and pull down the wings of the nose.

Nasal cavity

The entrance “gate” of the respiratory tract, through which inhaled (as well as exhaled) air passes, is the nasal cavity - the space between the anterior cranial fossa and the oral cavity.

The nasal cavity, divided by the osteochondral nasal septum into the right and left halves and communicating with the external environment through the nostrils, also has posterior openings - choanae, leading to the nasopharynx.

The turbinates (inferior, middle and superior) divide the right and left halves of the nasal cavity into tortuous nasal passages - upper, middle and lower. In the upper and middle nasal passages there are small openings through which the nasal cavity communicates with the paranasal sinuses. In the lower nasal passage there is an opening of the nasolacrimal canal, through which tears flow into the nasal cavity.

Three areas of the nasal cavity

• vestibule
• respiratory region
• olfactory region

Major bones and cartilages of the nose

Very often the nasal septum is curved (especially in men). This leads to difficulty breathing and, as a result, surgical intervention.

The vestibule limited by the wings of the nose, its edge is lined with a 4-5 mm strip of skin, equipped with big amount hairs

Respiratory area- this is the space from the bottom of the nasal cavity to the lower edge of the middle turbinate, lined with a mucous membrane formed by many goblet cells that secrete mucus.

U common man the nose can distinguish about ten thousand smells, and the taster can distinguish many more.

The surface layer of the mucous membrane (epithelium) has special cilia with a flickering movement directed towards the choanae. Under the mucous membrane of the nasal turbinates lies a tissue consisting of a plexus of blood vessels, which promotes instant swelling of the mucous membrane and narrowing of the nasal passages under the influence of physical, chemical and psychogenic irritants.

Nasal mucus, which has antiseptic properties, destroys a huge number of microbes trying to enter the body. If there are a lot of microbes, the volume of mucus also increases, which leads to a runny nose.

A runny nose is the most common disease in the world, which is why it is even included in the Guinness Book of Records. On average, an adult gets a runny nose up to ten times a year, and spends a total of up to three years with a stuffy nose throughout his life.

Olfactory region(olfactory organ), colored yellowish-brown, occupies part of the upper nasal passage and the posterosuperior part of the septum; its border is the lower edge of the middle turbinate. This zone is lined with epithelium containing olfactory receptor cells.

Olfactory cells are spindle-shaped and end on the surface of the mucous membrane with olfactory vesicles equipped with cilia. The opposite end of each olfactory cell continues into a nerve fiber. Such fibers, connecting into bundles, form the olfactory nerves (I pair). Odorous substances, entering the nose along with the air, reach the olfactory receptors by diffusion through the mucus covering the sensitive cells, chemically interact with them and cause excitement in them. This excitation travels along the fibers of the olfactory nerve to the brain, where odors are distinguished.

When eating, the olfactory sensations complement the gustatory ones. With a runny nose, the sense of smell is dulled and food seems tasteless. With the help of smell, the smell of undesirable impurities in the atmosphere is detected; sometimes it is possible to distinguish poor-quality food from food that is suitable for eating by smell.

Olfactory receptors are very sensitive to odors. To excite the receptor, it is enough for only a few molecules of an odorous substance to act on it.

Structure of the nasal cavity

• Our smaller brothers - animals - are more partial to smells than humans.
• Birds, fish, and insects sense odors at great distances. Petrels, albatrosses, and fulmars are able to smell fish at a distance of 3 km or more. It has been confirmed that pigeons find their way by smell, flying for many kilometers.
• For moles, their hypersensitive sense of smell is a sure guide to underground labyrinths.
• Sharks smell blood in the water even at a concentration of 1:100,000,000.
• It is believed that the male moth has the most acute sense of smell.
• Butterflies almost never land on the first flower they come across: they sniff and circle over the flowerbed. Very rarely, butterflies are attracted to poisonous flowers. If this happens, the “victim” sits down by a puddle and drinks heavily.

Paranasal (paranasal) sinuses

Paranasal sinuses (sinusitis)- these are air cavities (paired), located in the front part of the skull around the nose and communicating with its cavity through the outlet openings (ostia).

Maxillary sinus- the largest (the volume of each sinus is about 30 cm 3) - located between the lower edge of the orbits and the dentition of the upper jaw.

On the inner wall of the sinus, bordering the nasal cavity, there is an anastomosis leading to the middle meatus of the nasal cavity. Since the hole is located almost under the “roof” of the sinus, this complicates the outflow of contents and contributes to the development of congestive inflammatory processes.

The anterior, or facial, wall of the sinus has a depression called the canine fossa. This area is usually where the sinus is opened during surgery.

The upper wall of the sinus is also the lower wall of the orbit. The bottom of the maxillary sinus comes very close to the roots of the upper back teeth, to the point that sometimes the sinus and teeth are separated only by the mucous membrane, and this can lead to sinus infection.

The maxillary sinus got its name from the English doctor Nathaniel Highmore, who first described its diseases

Diagram of the location of the paranasal sinuses

Fat back wall The sinuses are bordered by the cells of the ethmoidal labyrinth and the sphenoid sinus.

Frontal sinus is located in the thickness of the frontal bone and has four walls. Using a thin winding canal that opens into the anterior section of the middle meatus, the frontal sinus communicates with the nasal cavity. The inferior wall of the frontal sinus is the superior wall of the orbit. The median wall separates the left frontal sinus from the right, the posterior wall separates the frontal sinus from the frontal lobe of the brain.

Ethmoid sinus, also called the “labyrinth,” is located between the orbit and the nasal cavity and consists of individual air-bearing bony cells. There are three groups of cells: anterior and middle, opening into the middle nasal meatus, and posterior, opening into the upper nasal meatus.

Sphenoid (main) sinus lies deep in the body of the sphenoid (main) bone of the skull, divided by a septum into two separate halves, each of which has an independent exit to the area of ​​the upper nasal passage.

At birth, a person has only two sinuses: the maxillary and the ethmoidal labyrinth. The frontal and sphenoid sinuses are absent in newborns and begin to form only from 3-4 years of age. The final development of the sinuses ends at approximately 25 years of age.

Functions of the nose and paranasal sinuses

The complex structure of the nose ensures that it successfully performs the four functions assigned to it by nature.

Olfactory function. The nose is one of the most important sense organs. With its help, a person perceives all the variety of smells around him. The loss of smell not only impoverishes the palette of sensations, but is also fraught with negative consequences. After all, some odors (for example, the smell of gas or spoiled food) signal danger.

Respiratory function- most important. It ensures the supply of oxygen to the body tissues, which is necessary for normal functioning and blood gas exchange. When nasal breathing is difficult, the course of oxidative processes in the body changes, which leads to disruption of the cardiovascular and nervous systems, dysfunction of the lower respiratory tract and gastrointestinal tract, and increased intracranial pressure.

The aesthetic significance of the nose plays an important role. Often, while ensuring normal nasal breathing and sense of smell, the shape of the nose gives its owner significant experiences, not corresponding to his ideas of beauty. In this regard, it is necessary to resort to plastic surgery, correcting the appearance of the external nose.

Protective function. The inhaled air, passing through the nasal cavity, is cleared of dust particles. Large dust particles are trapped by hairs that grow at the entrance to the nose; Some dust particles and bacteria, passing along with the air into the winding nasal passages, settle on the mucous membrane. Non-stop vibrations of the cilia of the ciliated epithelium remove mucus from the nasal cavity into the nasopharynx, from where it is expectorated or swallowed. Bacteria that enter the nasal cavity are largely neutralized by substances contained in nasal mucus. Cold air, passing through the narrow and winding nasal passages, is warmed and moistened by the mucous membrane, which is abundantly supplied with blood.

Resonator function. The nasal cavity and paranasal sinuses can be compared to sound system: the sound, reaching their walls, intensifies. The nose and sinuses play a leading role in the pronunciation of nasal consonants. Nasal congestion causes nasal sounds, in which nasal sounds are pronounced incorrectly.

There are more people in the world who think that they don't like the shape of their nose than there are people who wonder if they can make it breathe better. Of course, everyone knows about everyday care, treatment for diseases, etc. But how many of us think about what the nasal cavity is?

Anatomy of the respiratory tract

Lung tissue is a fairly delicate structure. That is why the air, before making its way to them, must be cleared of dust and some microbes, humidified and warmed. This state is achieved with the help of a complex breathing apparatus that has a complex structure.

Pulmonary ventilation is the main process by which air moves into and out of the lungs. This is achieved through muscle contraction, as well as through the system negative pressure, which is achieved by the pleural membrane covering the lungs. When the lungs are completely sealed in this membrane, they remain under a pressure that is slightly lower than the pressure of the resting lungs. This causes air to passively fill the lungs until there is no more difference in pressure. At this point, if necessary, additional air can be inhaled by contracting the diaphragm as well as the surrounding intercostal muscles.

Before reaching the lungs, the air passes through the trachea, above is the larynx and nasopharynx, as well as the upper part - the cavity where it enters immediately after inhalation. This is where its primary processing takes place.

Structure of the nose

Few people think about it, but breathing is provided to us by a very perfect and complex organ. Perhaps this is why any, even small problems instantly affect your well-being. Conventionally, this organ can be divided into two large parts:

As you exhale, the muscles relax and this changes the pressure dynamics, increasing the pressure outside the lungs and forcing air away from them until the two pressures are equal again. Due to the elastic nature of the lungs, they return to a state of rest and the whole process repeats.

External respiration is a process that allows the exchange of gases to take place between the air located in the alveoli and the blood that passes through the capillaries. This is possible due to the difference in pressure between the oxygen and carbon dioxide in the air and the oxygen and carbon dioxide in the blood. As a result, oxygen is transferred from the air to the blood, and carbon dioxide from the blood enters the air. Useful oxygen is then carried throughout the body and carbon dioxide is dissipated through exhalation.

• external nose;
• nasal cavity;

The part that every person sees when simply looking at their face in the mirror is formed by small bones and cartilage tissue. Its final form is formed around the 15th year of life.

The structure of the nasal cavity is so complex because it is here that the temperature of the inhaled air is regulated and purified. The vestibule is lined with small hairs that trap particles of dust and microbes. Three curved bone plates protrude into the cavity, forming the so-called shells. Some of their areas are lined with sensitive cells, thanks to which a person has a sense of smell. The paranasal sinuses - the maxillary, frontal, main and ethmoid - also have access here through narrow passages. What do they consist of and why are they needed?

Internal respiration is a similar process, except that it involves the exchange of gas between the blood in the capillaries and the tissue of the body. Again, the difference in pressure allows oxygen to leave the blood and enter tissue, while carbon dioxide does the opposite.

This function of the respiratory system allows oxygen and carbon dioxide to move throughout the body to where they are needed. Most gases are carried through blood attached to transport molecules such as hemoglobin, although blood plasma will also have minimal gas content. Almost 99% of all oxygen found in the human body is transported by hemoglobin. Most carbon dioxide is transported from all areas of the body back to the lungs by the plasma in the form of bicarbonate ions.

Accessory nasal cavities

It would seem, why complicate everything? Let the air simply pass into the lungs, let its path be short and simple. But evolutionary development decreed otherwise, and man has more than just a nose. The nasal cavity has four additional sinuses.

1. Maxillary, or maxillary. This sinus is the most voluminous - up to 30 cubic centimeters. Its shape resembles a tetrahedron. This cavity communicates with the main one through a passage in the common wall. In the projection onto the front of the face, these sinuses are located on the sides of the nose immediately under the eyes.
2. Frontal. This sinus, on the contrary, is very small - only 3-5 cubic centimeters. It is located in the frontal bone and also communicates with the nose through a narrow passage.
3. Lattice. These sinuses consist of individual bony cells, which is why they are sometimes called the labyrinth. These cavities are located in a rather inaccessible place and border the inside of the eye socket and the brain.
4. Main (main). This part is the least studied, since it is located deep in the skull next to the most important organs - the carotid artery, brain, venous sinus, trigeminal and ophthalmic nerves, etc.

Like the nose itself, the nasal cavity and sinuses are lined with epithelium and mucous. This allows you not only to warm, but also to humidify the air entering here.

It is created from a catalytic reaction between water and carbon dioxide, which combine to form carbonic acid. Carbonic acid is then broken down into hydrogen and bicarbonate ions, the latter eventually being converted back into carbon dioxide, carried into the lungs and exhaled.

A cold or runny nose leads to acute sinusitis. Treatment and antibiotic therapy are useful only in exceptional cases. In contrast, naturopathic therapy can help relieve acute symptoms, strengthen the immune system in the long term, and break the cycle of recurrent infections.

Functions

Both the nose as a whole and its individual parts solve a lot of important problems. Firstly, as already mentioned, the hairs in the vestibule trap dust. Secondly, air passing through the winding nasal passages leaves some bacteria on the mucous membrane. Thirdly, its intense friction raises its temperature, and contact with the cells of the inside of the sinuses also increases humidity. In addition, all cavities play the role of a resonator and participate in the formation of the voice, giving it an individual timbre.

Sinusitis is an inflammation of the mucous membrane in the sinuses. If the nose is no longer sufficiently ventilated during a cold and there is little or no secretion, the nasal mucosa and sinuses may become inflamed. Swelling of the mucous membrane can further narrow the nasal passage and return secretions to the sinus. The doctor talks about acute sinusitis, which is also known as nasal sinusitis.

If acute sinusitis is not completely cured, or if the inflammatory mechanism in the nasal mucosa is disrupted, new tissue may develop in the area of ​​inflammation. If the nasal mucosa protrudes, doctors talk about a polyp. The newly formed tissue can permanently impair sinus ventilation and cause sinusitis to become chronic.

Diseases

Despite everything, the nasal cavity, the anatomy and purpose of which is directly related to contact with it, sometimes becomes inflamed itself. As a rule, this turns into rhinitis, that is, a runny nose. In this case, breathing through the nose is difficult, swelling, decreased olfactory function, and mucus flow are observed. This condition is familiar to everyone. In addition to the fact that a person is forced to breathe through the mouth, that is, deliver air that has not been properly processed into the lungs, there may be a lack of oxygen, that is, mild hypoxia. It is expressed in headaches, poor performance. Well, if we are talking about children, then breathing through the mouth leads to improper formation of the facial skeleton, which can cause problems with teeth and chest development, as well as hearing and memory disorders.

Symptoms are less severe with chronic sinusitis than with acute inflammation. However, those affected are less resilient, suffer from general exhaustion and are more susceptible to infections of all kinds. Typically, symptoms persist for more than 12 weeks with chronic nasal sinusitis. Chronic sinusitis can significantly reduce quality of life. Inflammation of the nasal sinuses affects affected individuals as much as chronic national diseases, heart weakness, asthma and back pain.

Treat chronic sinusitis

Reducing nasal drops and sprays is not considered a treatment for chronic sinusitis. If decongestants are used for too long, they dry out the nasal mucosa. The mucous membrane swells as a reaction to increase blood flow. This in turn makes nasal breathing difficult, even though the actual nasal sinus infection has already subsided. This can lead to a circle of the devil in which that person attacks the nasal spray more and more often to release the blocked nose. In a dried out nose, crusts form and the nasal mucosa suffers permanent damage.

It is worth considering: despite the fact that inflammation of the nasal cavity, that is, rhinitis or runny nose, seems like a nonsense disease that is not worth close medical attention, if it is not treated, serious complications can result from such a neglectful attitude.

Accessory nasal cavities

The effect can last up to six months. The concentration of the saline solution should be at least 2%, since the effectiveness is otherwise reduced. Also with medical probiotics, how the patient can treat chronic sinusitis naturally. Bacteria strengthen the body's defense against chronic or recurrent infection. Natural bacteria are an important part of our body's immune system. They colonize the skin and mucous membranes of the human body and leave pathogens virtually unable to reproduce.

Symptoms and treatment of sinus inflammation

Yes, a poorly treated runny nose or flu can turn into much more serious illnesses, such as sinusitis. Inflammation of the paranasal sinuses can be serous, that is, just swelling forms inside them, or purulent. In the second case, the symptoms will be more severe.

There are sinusitis (inflammation of the maxillary sinus), frontal sinusitis (frontal sinusitis), ethmoiditis (ethmoiditis) and sphenoiditis (main). They can be involved in the disease either individually or in pairs, or all together.

In the intestines, they train the immune system and thereby stimulate the protection of all mucous membranes. There they sit on the immune system's switches because 80 percent of immune cells are in the gut and come into contact with body-borne bacteria and foreign substances. Immune cells in the gut set the course for future immune responses throughout the body.

Hidden causes of sinusitis

Medical probiotics may help if your immune system is compromised. Particularly suitable for the treatment of recurring nasal sinus infections. Medical grade probiotics are also well tolerated in children. Chronic or recurring sinusitis may also have other causes. About half of adults with chronic sinusitis, for example, have allergies that contribute to the sinusitis. About 70 percent of all asthmatics have sinusitis symptoms. Sinusitis, in turn, can worsen asthma.

The main symptoms are a feeling of pressure in the location of the sinuses. An increase in temperature is often observed, all this is accompanied by fatigue, and sometimes even lacrimation and photophobia. In the chronic course of the disease, the symptoms may be less acute, sometimes only loss of performance and headache are felt.

Also, intolerance to painkillers leads to nasal discomfort and can lead to further progression of sinusitis even in non-allergic asthma after taking a painkiller. Sinusitis is a typical early sign of the disease. Between 0.6 and 2.5% of the total population suffer from pain intolerance.

For these reasons, it is helpful to look for an allergic condition in chronic or recurring sinusitis and treat it appropriately. In the case of acute sinusitis, for example, anti-inflammatory drugs may be used for allergy sufferers. Possible, hidden causes of sinusitis.

Before treatment is prescribed, a diagnosis is carried out, which includes an external examination and radiography. After this, the patient can be hospitalized, and in not too serious cases, he can be treated at home with the medications prescribed by the doctor. As a rule, their list includes antibiotics. Ignoring sinusitis can lead to even worse severe consequences- inflammation of the membranes of the brain.

A sloping nasal septum or nasal sinus polyps can also cause chronic sinusitis. In these cases, surgery may be useful to straighten the nasal septum or remove polyps. If viruses cause symptoms of nasal sinusitis, the symptoms usually disappear within ten days. If bacteria are responsible for acute sinusitis, symptoms worsen again after five days of illness or symptoms last well beyond ten days.

Treatment of acute sinusitis

The different forms of acute bacterial sinusitis can be distinguished depending on the frequency and course of nasal sinusitis. When treating sinusitis, ventilation and emptying of the sinuses is important. Decongestant nasal drops or sprays can help clear out the sinuses, but should not be used for more than seven to ten days.

Care

From an early age, you need to get used to the fact that the nose and nasal cavity need regular hygiene. The external respiratory passages must be cleared of waste products, and if necessary, they must also be moistened. The same applies to periods of rhinitis: blowing out mucus must be done effectively and carefully so that its particles do not get into the passages connecting the nose to the ear.

Inhaling warm vapors for a few days can also relieve symptoms of nasal sinusitis. The vapor can thin out secretions and thus make the sinuses easier to empty. However, if you don't want to give up essential oils, you should note: adding menthol is not suitable for babies.

In addition, children and young children should not use menthol-containing rubbing products. From the field of herbal medicine, myrtil, kineol and a mixture of primers are suitable for the treatment of acute sinusitis. Even the bromelain enzyme in pineapple can relieve mucous membranes and thereby relieve symptoms and promote sinus ventilation. Acupuncture can also improve nasal breathing in acute sinusitis, as well as relieve pain. First of all, you can fight headaches.

As a rule, doctors talk about the great role in the prevention of sinusitis of such a simple measure as sanitation or rinsing of the nasal cavity. This is not the most pleasant procedure, but it helps to get rid of pathogenic bacteria that have settled on the mucous membrane.

This human organ performs important functions: when inhaling, the air flow is purified in its cavity, moistened and heated to the required temperature. This is possible due to the special structure of this organ. The nasal cavity is the beginning of the complex process of human breathing. Therefore, its proper functioning directly depends on the state of health. The structure of the nose of a newborn and an adult is different. The difference lies in the increase in the size of some of its components.

Simple measures can further help relieve the symptoms of acute sinusitis. Widespread drinking liquefies, for example, mucus in the respiratory tract and facilitates emptying of the sinuses. Three to four liters of fluid per day should be provided in case of nasal sinusitis. In addition, rest and warmth do well. Warm neck and chest, red light or a cold bath may provide relief. However, the bath should not be too hot and should last no more than 20 minutes.

Frequently asked questions about sinusitis

Is there a difference between sinusitis and nasal sinusitis? No, sinusitis is the Latin term for nasal sinusitis. Depending on the place of origin, they say, for example, sinusitis or sinusitis. As a collection term and generally speaking, nasal sinusitis is usually spoken of.

The structure of the human nose and its outer section

This organ is a complex organ that performs dozens of mechanisms and a number of functions during inhalation. Otolaryngologists distinguish two main sections of the organ: the external and the nasal cavity (internal part).

This part of the human organ is unique. You won’t get this from any animal. Even monkeys, which are considered our ancestors, have dozens of differences from humans in the structure of the external region. Genetics associate this form of this organ with a person’s ability to develop his speech and with his walking on two legs.

When it gets colder again, the cold gets worse. If our immune system is weakened, this is an ideal basis for infection by viruses and bacteria. They cling to our nasal mucosa, multiply and cause inflammation. This can cause the mucous membranes to swell and the sinus openings to narrow. Currently there is no adequate ventilation and the flow of secretions is obstructed. Viruses are often responsible for the initial infection that causes a simple runny nose. Since the protective mechanism of the nasal mucosa is no longer applicable, a second infection with bacteria can occur in the nasal extremities.

We see the outer part on our face. The human nose consists of bone and cartilage tissue, which are covered with muscles and skin. Outwardly, they resemble a trihedron with a hollow structure. The paired bones that are attached to the frontal part of the skull are the basis of the outer part of the organ. They come into contact with each other, resulting in the formation of the bridge of the nose in the upper part.

Why are paranasal sinuses needed?

Now we are talking about nasal sinusitis. Are there any factors that can help reduce nasal sinusitis? Risk factors include a weakened immune system, a deviated nasal septum, displaced cavernous openings, and an enlarged turbinate. But an allergically caused runny nose can also be considered a factor.

How do you know if you have acute or chronic nasal sinusitis? Sinusitis can occur acutely or chronically. Acute sinusitis usually develops on the floor of the common sense of smell. A single yellowish-yellow nasal mucus is not sufficient to diagnose acute sinusitis. On the other hand, the two main symptoms are: facial pain, which increases the anterior curvature and congestion of the face. Affected individuals describe pressure pain that can occur in the cheekbones, forehead, scalp, eyes and teeth. To talk about a chronic course, sinusitis must exist for at least three months.

Bone tissue continues with cartilage. They form the tip of the organ and the wings of the nose. There are also tissues that form the backs of the holes.

The outer skin consists of a large number of sebaceous glands and hairs, which have a protective function. Hundreds of capillaries and nerve endings are concentrated here.

Interior

The entrance route for breathing is the nasal cavity - this is a hollow part of the internal section located between the front of the skull and the mouth. Its inner walls are formed by the bones of the nose. From the mouth it is limited to the hard and soft palate.

The internal nasal cavity is divided into two parts by an osteochondral septum. Usually in humans it is shifted to one side, so their internal structure differs in size. Each cavity includes four walls.

1. The bottom or bottom is the bones of the hard palate.
2. The upper one looks like a porous plate, which is dotted with vessels, nerve endings and bundles of the olfactory organ.
3. Internal - partition.
4. The lateral one is formed by several bones and has nasal turbinates, which divide the cavities into nasal passages, which have a tortuous structure.

The internal anatomy of the nose consists of three and middle. Between them lie passages through which the inhaled air flow passes. The inferior shell is formed by an independent bone.

The nasal passages are winding passages. In the lower one there is a hole that connects to the lacrimal canals. It serves to drain eye secretions into the cavity. The superior nasal meatus lies posteriorly. It has holes that lead directly to the sinuses.

The mucous membrane plays an important role. It is an integral part of the structure of the nose and contributes to its normal functioning. It carries the functions of humidifying, warming and purifying the air flow and helps in the process of smell perception. This divides the mucosa into two lobes:

• respiratory with a large number of cilia, vessels, glands;
• olfactory.

The vessels have the function of increasing in volume, which leads to a narrowing of the nasal passages and indicates the human body’s reaction to the stimulus. They contribute to the heating of air masses due to the transfer of heat from the blood circulating in them. This will protect the bronchi and lungs from too cold air.

The secreted mucus contains antiseptic substances that fight pathogenic microflora that enter the nasal passages along with the inhaled air. This leads to the appearance of copious nasal discharge, which we call a runny nose.

Special structure The human nasopharynx traps all bacteria and viruses that enter the human body when inhaled.

The nasal cavities play a huge role in the sound of a person's voice, since air masses when pronouncing sounds pass through them.

The main organ of smell lies in the inner part of the nose, in the area of ​​the upper passage. This zone contains epithelium, which is lined with receptor cells. With inflammatory processes in the nose, this feeling in a person becomes dull and sometimes disappears altogether. The function of smell is necessary for a person not only to recognize odors. This organ also carries a protective ability, which, when dangerous contents appear in the air, sends a signal to the brain, and the person reflexively closes his nose or holds his breath. This organ also works closely with the mucous membrane, which under certain conditions increases in volume and does not allow air to pass through in the required volume.

Sinuses

The pairs located around the nose and connected to the nasal cavities by the outlet openings are called sinuses (paranasal sinuses).

Gaimarovs. They connect to the middle meatus and cavity. This connecting mouth is located in the upper part, which complicates the outflow of contents and is often accompanied by inflammatory processes in these sinuses.

The sinus located deep in the bone of the forehead is called the frontal sinus. The structure of the human nose implies the connection of all its parts. Therefore, the frontal sinus has an outlet into the middle nasal passage and communicates with the cavity.

There are ethmoid and sphenoid sinuses. The first are located between the nasal cavity and the orbit, and the second is deep in the sphenoid part of the skull.

It should be noted that a newborn child does not have frontal and sphenoid sinuses. They are in the embryonic phase. Their formation begins at 4 years of age. These sinuses are considered fully formed at the age of 25. In addition, a baby’s passages are much narrower than those of an adult, which often leads to difficult breathing for the child.

A person needs the nose for breathing and smell. It is able to protect a person from negative factors environment. In addition, the nose is involved in the formation of speech. The anatomy of the human nose consists of several sections that allow it to perform all of the listed functions.

Purpose

The human nose is an organ with a unique structure, different from the noses of other living beings. The special structure is explained by the peculiarities of the sense of smell, the development of speech and upright posture.

The external description of the organ differs among people of different races, ages, and genders.

In women it is smaller, but wider than in men.

The internal structure of the nose is the same for all people.

This is the first department respiratory system person. It consists of:

• Outdoor area;
• Nasal cavity;
• Paranasal sinuses or sinuses.

The nose performs important functions for the human body.

Breath. Through the nose we draw in air, from which the lungs receive the oxygen necessary for all organs. Breathing through the mouth is not as effective: only 80% of the air enters the body.

Thermoregulation. In the nasal cavity, the air is heated by the blood vessels and stored in the required volume. This allows you to avoid hypothermia of internal organs.

Hydration. The nasal cavity secretes a secretion that saturates dry air with moisture.

Protection. The hairs trap large dust particles and prevent them from entering the lungs. Fine dust and germs cling to the mucous membrane. Special enzymes kill microorganisms. If too much dust and microorganisms accumulate, the nose is cleared by sneezing and watery eyes.

This is the organ of smell. The nasal cavity consists of olfactory cells that detect smell. This function was originally intended to search for food, so it triggers the secretion of saliva and gastric juice. As evolution progresses, these functions of the nose become less important.

The structure of the nasal cavity, nose and sinuses is designed in such a way that they ideally perform all functions. This happens in those moments while the inhalation lasts.

What is the outer part made of?

The external nose is what is on our face. Its shape is a triangular pyramid, it is created by bones and cartilage. The fixed bony skeleton consists of paired nasal bones adjacent to the upper jaw. The bones and cartilage are intricately designed to protect the passages from impact while remaining flexible.

Cartilaginous tissues are attached to the motionless skeleton. The paired lateral cartilage is the front part of the nose, it is adjacent to the beginning of the nasal bone. Most people have a small hump in this area.

The paired large cartilage is the tip of the external nose. It borders the entrance to the nasal cavity and divides it into two parts.

The structure of the nose includes facial muscles, thanks to which we can raise and lower the tip of the nose, as well as narrow and widen the nostrils.

The outer part is covered with skin, nerve endings, sebaceous glands and hairs. Blood supply is carried out through the jaw arteries, smaller vessels and capillaries. The lymphatic system functions through the lymph nodes under the jaw and near the ears.

Most often, plastic surgery corrects the external nose. Many people are unhappy with the too large hump at the junction of bones and cartilage. Plastic surgeons change the shape of the tip of the nose. These operations are carried out according to medical indications or at the request of the person.

Reasons for rhinoplasty:

• Incorrect or unsightly size of nostrils;
• Birth defects that make breathing difficult;
• Consequences of injuries;
• Dissatisfaction with the shape of the nose;
• Breathing disorders;

Some defects can be removed with cosmetic procedures. For medical reasons, defects can only be removed by surgery.

What is the interior made of?

When air passes through the nostrils, it enters the nasal cavity. This is the upper part of the respiratory tract, located between the eye sockets and oral cavity. This part is separated from the mouth by the palate and is surrounded by bones on other sides. The nasal cavities communicate with the pharynx by two oval openings.

The nasal cavity has three sections.

vestibule

The initial section that opens just behind the nostrils. It is a mucous membrane covered with hairs. They are needed to protect the respiratory system from foreign objects.

The cartilages of the nose form a septum and divide the section into two equal areas. The most common defect is its curvature. It is not dangerous, but can make breathing difficult and often leads to nighttime snoring. The defect is easily corrected by surgery.

The nasal cavity is surrounded by bones and cartilage. Also, the nasal cavity has three conchae, dividing its walls into several passages:

• The lower one is the exit of the lacrimal canal, where discharge from the eyes flows;
• Middle – exit from the paranasal sinuses;
• Upper.

Another common passage for the two nostrils is the gap between all passages and the septum. It connects the vestibule with the following areas. All passages are characterized by tortuosity and great length.

Respiratory area

The nasal cavity has a mucous membrane that secretes enzymes. They kill microorganisms and disinfect the air. The more germs and bacteria enter this area, the more secret stands out. The area is a barrier to pathogens.

There are cilia on the mucous membrane; they constantly move and remove excess mucus and microorganisms. The anatomy of the nasal cavity is designed in such a way that a person does not notice this cleansing. If there is too much mucus and pathogens, a runny nose and sneezing develops. During a runny nose, the passages narrow to protect the cavity from irritants. This occurs due to swelling of blood vessels and mucous membranes.

Located at the top. The olfactory organ is an epithelium with olfactory cells. One end of these cells comes to the surface with cilia, the other is connected to nerve endings. These endings intertwine and form the olfactory nerves.

Receptors pick up odors, nerves carry them to the brain, where aroma analysis occurs. A person can distinguish 10,000 odors, but everyone has this ability developed to varying degrees. The organ of smell works worse during a runny nose due to an increase in the amount of mucus on the epithelium.

Thus, the functions of the nasal cavity include disinfecting the air, heating it and trapping odors.

Why are sines needed?

The paranasal sinuses surround the nasal cavity and are spaces between the bones.

There are four types of sinuses.

Wedge-shaped. Located inside sphenoid bone. It has a partition dividing it into two independent areas. Each of them connects to the upper passage into the nasal cavity.

Frontal. They are located inside the frontal bone, between its walls. Because bone develops between ages 3 and 13, some people do not have these sinuses.

The Highmorovs. The largest departments. Located between the upper teeth and eye sockets. When mucus separation is impaired, inflammation develops, which can develop into sinusitis.

Wall, separating them from the eye sockets, is the thinnest, so through it the infection can be transmitted to the eyes and brain.

Cells of the ethmoid labyrinth. The cells of the ethmoid bone are interconnected and arranged in a row. Connected to the top passage.

The paranasal sinuses act as resonators for the human voice. They are needed for air exchange and heating of the incoming flow. They also disinfect and purify the air flow. The paranasal sinuses take on part of the load to speed up the process of exchanging air with the environment.

The paranasal sinuses are located close to the eye sockets and brain. If inflammation begins in them. There is a danger of transmitting it to the eyes and brain. Therefore, it is necessary to treat even a mild runny nose and not let the disease take its course. The anatomy of the nose and paranasal sinuses is complex, so treatment is not the most pleasant procedure.

Under the influence of evolution, the formation of the structure of the nose in humans occurred gradually. All elements are one system and are interconnected. As a result, we have an organ of smell and breathing that perfectly performs its functions.

Video: Nasal cavity

Basic anatomical formations of the head and neck.

The nose is the most prominent part of the face, located in close proximity to the brain. To understand the mechanisms of development of pathological processes and ways to prevent the spread of infection, it is necessary to know the structural features. The basics of studying at a medical university begin with the alphabet, in this case with the study of the basic anatomical structures of the sinuses.

Being the initial link of the respiratory tract, it is connected with other organs of the respiratory system. The connection with the oropharynx suggests an indirect relationship with the digestive tract, since often mucus from the nasopharynx enters the stomach. Thus, one way or another, pathological processes in the sinuses can affect all these structures, causing diseases.

In anatomy, it is customary to divide the nose into three main structural parts:

• External nose;
• Directly the nasal cavity;
• Paranasal sinuses.

Together they form the main olfactory organ, the main functions of which are:

1. Respiratory. It is the first link in the respiratory tract; it is through the nose that inhaled air normally passes; the wings of the nose play the role of auxiliary muscles in case of respiratory failure.
2. Sensitive. It is one of the main sense organs, thanks to the receptor olfactory hairs, it is able to capture odors.
3. Protective. The mucus secreted by the mucous membrane allows it to retain dust particles, microbes, spores and other large particles, preventing them from passing deep into the body.
4. Warming. Passing through the nasal passages, cool air is heated thanks to the mucous capillary vascular network located close to the surface.
5. Resonator. Participates in the sound of one’s own voice, determines the individual characteristics of voice timbre.

The video in this article will help you better understand the structure of the paranasal cavities

Let's look at the structure of the nose and sinuses in pictures.

External departments

The anatomy of the nose and paranasal sinuses begins with the study of the external nose.

The outer part of the olfactory organ is represented by bone and soft tissue structures in the form trihedral pyramid incorrect configuration:

• The upper part is called the dorsum, which is located between the brow ridges - this is the narrowest part of the external nose;
• Nasolabial folds and wings limit the organ on the sides;
• The tip of the nose is called the apex;

Below, on the base, are the nostrils. They are represented by two round passages through which air enters Airways. Bounded by the wings on the lateral side, and by the septum on the medial side.

The structure of the external nose.

The table shows the main structures of the external nose and the designations where they are located in the photo:

The structure of the external nose.

Nasal cavity

It is represented by three choanae or nasal conchas, between which the human nasal passages are located. They are localized between the oral cavity and the anterior fossa of the skull - the entrance to the skull.

Structure of the nasal cavity.

When performing rhinoscopy, the ENT doctor can only see the middle passage; beyond the rhinoscope are the upper and lower ones.

Sinuses

The facial bones contain hollow spaces that are normally filled with air and connect to the nasal cavity - these are the paranasal sinuses. There are four types in total.

Photo of the structure of the human sinuses.

Normally, air flows through the sinuses. In the photo you can see the structure of the nasal sinuses and their relative position. With inflammatory changes, the sinuses are often filled with mucous or mucopurulent contents.

The paranasal sinuses also communicate with each other, which is why the infection often spreads and flows from one sinus to another.

Maxillary

They are the largest and have a triangular shape:

Formations of the maxillary paranasal sinus

Lattice

The ethmoid labyrinth is a single bone where the ethmoid sinuses are located in humans, it borders on:

• frontal superior;
• wedge-shaped at the back;
• maxillary from the side.

It may spread into the orbit in the anterior or posterior sections, depending on the individual characteristics of the anatomical structure. Then they border on the anterior fossa of the skull through the cribriform plate.

This justifies the instructions when opening the sinuses - only in the lateral direction, so as not to damage the plate. The optic nerve also passes close to the plate.

Frontal

They have a triangular shape and are located in the scales of the frontal bone. They have 4 walls:

Wedge-shaped

Formed by walls:

The video in this article will help you understand where exactly the paranasal sinuses are located and how they are formed:

All medical workers and people suffering from sinusitis need to know about the anatomy of the paranasal sinuses. This information will help to understand where the pathological process develops and how it can spread.

Rice. 1. The basis of the cartilaginous part of the external nose is the lateral cartilage, the upper edge of which borders on the nasal bone of the same side and partially on the frontal process of the upper jaw. The upper edges of the lateral cartilages form a continuation of the dorsum of the nose, adjoining in this section the cartilaginous part of the upper parts of the nasal septum. The lower edge of the lateral cartilage borders the greater wing cartilage, which is also paired. The large wing cartilage has medial and lateral crura. Connecting in the middle, the medial crura form the tip of the nose, and the lower parts of the lateral crura form the edge of the nasal openings (nostrils). Between the lateral and greater cartilages of the nasal wing, sesamoid cartilages may be located in the thickness of the connective tissue, different shapes and magnitude.

The wing of the nose, in addition to large cartilage, includes connective tissue formations from which the posterior sections of the nasal openings are formed. The inner sections of the nostrils are formed by the movable part of the nasal septum.

The outer nose is covered with the same skin as the face. The external nose has muscles that are designed to compress the nasal openings and pull down the wings of the nose.

The blood supply to the external nose is provided by the ophthalmic artery (a. ophthalmicа), dorsal nasal (a. dorsalis nasi) and facial (a. facialis) arteries. Venous outflow occurs through the facial, angular and partially ophthalmic veins, which in some cases contributes to the spread of infection when inflammatory diseases external nose to the sinuses of the dura mater. Lymphatic drainage from the external nose occurs in the submandibular and superior parotid lymph nodes. The motor innervation of the external nose is provided by the facial nerve, and the sensory innervation is provided by the trigeminal nerve (I and II branches).

The anatomy of the nasal cavity is more complex. The nasal cavity is located between the anterior cranial fossa (above), the orbits (laterally) and the oral cavity (below). In front, the nasal cavity communicates with the external environment through the nostrils, and in the back, through the choanae, it communicates with the nasopharynx region.

There are four walls of the nasal cavity: lateral (lateral), internal (medial), upper and lower. The most complex structure is the lateral wall of the nose, formed by several bones and bearing the turbinates. Its bone formations include the nasal bones, the upper jaw, the lacrimal bone, the ethmoid bone, the inferior nasal concha, the vertical plate of the palatine bone and the pterygoid process of the sphenoid bone. On the side wall there are three longitudinal projections formed by shells. The largest is the inferior nasal concha; it is an independent bone; the middle and superior conchas are outgrowths of the ethmoid bone.

The lower wall of the nasal cavity (bottom of the nasal cavity) is actually the hard palate; it is formed by the palatine process of the upper jaw (in the anterior sections) and the horizontal plate of the palatine bone. At the anterior end of the bottom of the nose there is a canal that serves for the passage of the nasopalatine nerve (n. nasopalatinus) from the nasal cavity to the oral cavity. The horizontal plate of the palatine bone limits the lower parts of the choanae.

The inner (medial) wall of the nasal cavity is the nasal septum (Fig. 2). In the lower and posterior sections it is represented by bone formations (the nasal crest of the palatine process of the upper jaw, the perpendicular plate of the ethmoid bone and an independent bone - the vomer). In the anterior sections, these bone formations are adjacent to the quadrangular cartilage of the nasal septum (cartilage septi nasi), the upper edge of which forms the anterior section of the nasal dorsum. The posterior edge of the vomer limits the choanae medially. In the anteroinferior section, the cartilage of the nasal septum is adjacent to the medial processes of the large cartilage of the nasal wing, which, together with the skin part of the nasal septum, form its movable part.

Rice. 2. Nasal septum 1. Lamina cribrosa 2. Crista sphenoidalis 3. Apertura sinus sphenoidalis 4. Sinus sphenoidalis 5. Ala vomeris 6. Clivus 7. Pars ossea 8. Pars cartilaginea 9. Septum nasi 10. Lamina medialis processus pterygoidei 11. Processus palatineus maxillae 12. Crista nasalis 13. Canalis incisivus 14. Spina nasalis anterior 15. Cartilago alaris major 16. Cartilago vomeronasalis 17. Cartilago septi nasi 18. Cartilago nasi lateralis 19. Vomer 20. Processus posterior 21. Os nasale 22. Lamina perpendicularis ossis alis 23. Crista gali 24. Sinus frontalis

Rice. 2. The upper wall of the nasal cavity (roof) in the anterior sections is formed by the nasal bones, the frontal processes of the upper jaw and the partially perpendicular plate of the ethmoid bone. In the middle sections, the upper wall is formed by the ethmoid bone (lamina cribrosa), in the posterior sections - the sphenoid bone (the anterior wall of the sphenoid sinus). The sphenoid bone forms the upper wall of the choana. The cribriform plate is pierced by a large number (25-30) of openings through which the branches of the anterior ethmoidal nerve and the vein accompany the anterior ethmoidal artery and connect the nasal cavity with the anterior cranial fossa.

The space between the nasal septum and the turbinates is called the common meatus. In the lateral sections of the nasal cavity, corresponding to the three nasal conchae, there are three nasal passages (Fig. 3). The lower nasal passage (meatus nasi inferior) is limited from above by the inferior nasal concha, from below by the bottom of the nasal cavity. In the anterior third of the lower nasal meatus, at a distance of 10 mm from the anterior end of the concha, there is an opening of the nasolacrimal canal. The lateral wall of the lower nasal passage in the lower sections is thick (has a spongy structure), closer to the place of attachment of the inferior nasal concha, it becomes significantly thinner, and therefore puncture of the maxillary sinus (correction of the nasal septum) is carried out precisely in this area: at a distance of 2 cm from the anterior end of the lower shells

Rice. 3. Nasal cavity 1. Bulla ethmoidalis 2. Concha nasalis inferior 3. Concha nasalis media 4. Concha nasalis superior 5. Apertura sinus sphenoidalis 6. Sinus sphenoidalis 7. Meatus nasi inferior 8. Meatus nasi medius 9. Bursa pharyngealis 10. Meatus nasi inferior 11. Tonsilla pharyngealis 12. Torus tubarius auditivae 13. Ostium pharyngeum tubae 14. Palatum molle 15. Meatus nasopharyngeus 16. Palatum durum 17. Plica lacrimalis 18. Ductus nasolacrimalis 19. Labium superius 20. Vestibulum nasi 21. Apex nasi 22. Limen nasi 23. Agger nasi 24. Dorsum nasi 25. Processus uncinatus 26. Hiatus semilunaris 27. Radix nasi 28. Aperturae sinus frontalis 29. Sinus frontalis

Rice. 3. The middle nasal passage (meatus nasi medius) is located between the inferior and middle nasal concha. Its lateral wall is represented not only bone tissue, but also a duplication of the mucous membrane, which is called “fontanella” (fontanelles). If the middle turbinate is partially removed, a semilunar cleft (hiatus semilunaris) will open, bounded in the anteroinferior parts by a bone plate (uncinate process), and in the posterosuperior parts by a bone vesicle (bulla etmoidalis). In the anterior sections of the semilunar fissure, the mouth of the frontal sinus opens, in the middle sections - the anterior and middle cells of the ethmoid bone sinuses, and in the posterior sections there is a depression formed by the duplication of the mucous membrane and called the funnel (infundibulum), which ends with a hole leading into the maxillary sinus.

The superior nasal passage (meatus nasi superior) is located between the superior and middle nasal concha. The posterior cells of the ethmoid bone open into it. The sphenoid sinus opens into the sphenoethmoidal recess (recessus sphenoethmoidalis).

The nasal cavity is lined with mucous membrane, which covers all the bone sections of the walls, and therefore the contours of the bone section are preserved. The exception is the vestibule of the nasal cavity, which is covered with skin and has hairs (vibrissae). In this area, the epithelium remains stratified squamous, as in the area of ​​the external nose. The mucous membrane of the nasal cavity is covered with multirow cylindrical ciliated epithelium.

Depending on the structural features of the nasal mucosa, the respiratory and olfactory sections are distinguished. The respiratory department occupies the area from the bottom of the nasal cavity to the middle of the middle turbinate. Above this border, the ciliated columnar epithelium is replaced by a specific olfactory epithelium. The respiratory section of the nasal cavity is characterized by a large thickness of the mucous membrane. Its subepithelial section contains numerous alveolar-tubular glands, which, based on the nature of the secretion, are divided into mucous, serous and mixed. The respiratory part of the mucous membrane is characterized by the presence in its thickness of cavernous plexuses - varicose veins with a muscular wall, due to which they can contract in volume. The cavernous plexuses (corpus cavernosa) regulate the temperature of the air passing through the nasal cavity. Cavernous tissue is contained in the thickness of the mucous membrane of the inferior turbinates, located along the lower edge of the middle turbinate, in the posterior sections of the middle and superior turbinates.

In the olfactory region, in addition to the specific olfactory epithelium, there are supporting cells that are cylindrical, but lack cilia. The glands present in this section of the nasal cavity secrete a more liquid secretion than the glands located in the respiratory part.

The blood supply to the nasal cavity is carried out from the system of external (a. carotis externa) and internal (a. carotis interim) carotid arteries. The sphenopalatine artery (a. sphenopalatina) originates from the first artery; passing through the main palatine opening (foramen sphenopalatinum) into the nasal cavity, it gives off two branches - the posterior nasal lateral and septal arteries (aa. nasales posteriores laterales et septi), providing blood supply to the posterior sections of the nasal cavity, both the lateral and medial walls. The ophthalmic artery originates from the internal carotid artery, from which branches of the anterior and posterior ethmoidal arteries arise (aa. ethmoidales anterior et posterior). The anterior ethmoidal arteries pass into the nose through the cribriform plate, the posterior ones through the posterior ethmoidal foramen (foramen ethmoidale post.). They provide nutrition to the area of ​​the ethmoid labyrinth and the anterior parts of the nasal cavity.

The outflow of blood occurs through the anterior facial and ophthalmic veins. Features of blood outflow often determine the development of orbital and intracranial rhinogenic complications. In the nasal cavity, particularly pronounced venous plexuses are present in the anterior sections of the nasal septum (locus Kilsselbachii).

Lymphatic vessels form two networks - superficial and deep. The olfactory and respiratory areas, despite their relative independence, have anastomoses. Lymphatic drainage occurs in the same lymph nodes: from the anterior sections of the nose to the submandibular, from the posterior to the deep cervical.

Sensitive innervation of the nasal cavity is provided by the first and second branches of the trigeminal nerve. The anterior part of the nasal cavity is innervated by the first branch of the trigeminal nerve (anterior ethmoidal nerve - n. ethmoidalis anterior - branch of the nasociliary nerve - n. nasociliaris). The nasociliary nerve from the nasal cavity penetrates through the nasociliary foramen (foramen nasociliaris) into the cranial cavity, and from there through the cribriform plate into the nasal cavity, where it branches in the region of the nasal septum and the anterior sections of the lateral wall of the nose. The external nasal branch (ramus nasalis ext.) between the nasal bone and the lateral cartilage extends onto the dorsum of the nose, innervating the skin of the external nose.

The posterior sections of the nasal cavity are innervated by the second branch of the trigeminal nerve, which enters the nasal cavity through the posterior ethmoidal foramen and branches in the mucous membrane of the posterior cells of the ethmoid bone and the sinus of the sphenoid bone. The second branch of the trigeminal nerve gives off the nodal branches and the infraorbital nerve. The nodal branches are part of the pterygopalatine ganglion, but most of them pass directly into the nasal cavity and innervate the posterosuperior part of the lateral wall of the nasal cavity in the region of the middle and superior nasal concha, the posterior cells of the ethmoid bone and the sinus of the sphenoid bone in the form of rr. nasales.

Along the nasal septum, a large branch runs from back to front - the nasopalatine nerve (n. nasopalatinus). In the anterior parts of the nose, it penetrates through the incisive canal into the mucous membrane of the hard palate, where it anastomoses with the nasal branches of the alveolar and palatine nerves.

Secretory and vascular innervation comes from the superior cervical sympathetic ganglion, the postganglionic fibers of which penetrate into the nasal cavity as part of the second branch of the trigeminal nerve; parasympathetic innervation is carried out through the pterygopalatine ganglion (gang. pterigopalatinum) due to the nerve of the pterygoid canal. The latter is formed by the sympathetic nerve, originating from the superior cervical sympathetic ganglion, and the parasympathetic nerve, originating from the geniculate ganglion of the facial nerve.

Specific olfactory innervation is carried out by the olfactory nerve (n. olfactorius). Sensitive bipolar cells of the olfactory nerve (I neuron) are located in the olfactory region of the nasal cavity. The olfactory filaments (filae olfactoriae), extending from these cells, penetrate into the cranial cavity through the cribriform plate, where, connecting, they form the olfactory bulb (bulbus olfactorius), enclosed in the vagina formed by the dura mater. The pulpy fibers of the sensitive cells of the olfactory bulb form the olfactory tract (tractus olfactorius - II neuron). Next, the olfactory pathways go to the olfactory triangle and end in the cortical centers (gyrus hippocampi, gyrus dentatus, sulcus olfactorius).