Legal status of foreigners in the Russian Empire. Legal status of foreigners in the Russian Empire Who are foreigners in the 19th century

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INTRODUCTION

CHAPTER 1. MANAGEMENT OF INDIGENOUS PEOPLES OF SIBERIA ACCORDING TO THE “CHARTER ON THE MANAGEMENT OF ALIENS”

1. DIVISION OF FOREIGNERS INTO GROUPS

2. MANAGEMENT OF “ALIENERS”

CHAPTER 2. POLICY OF THE ROYAL GOVERNMENT REGARDING THE INDIGENOUS PEOPLES OF SIBERIA ACCORDING TO THE “CHARTER ON THE MANAGEMENT OF FOREIGNERS”

CONCLUSION

NOTE

BIBLIOGRAPHY

INTRODUCTION “Charter on the management of foreigners”, approved on July 22, 1822, had vital importance for the life of the peoples of Siberia. How historical source

The “Charter” is of invaluable importance for studying the life and governance of the peoples of Siberia during its operation. In addition, it allows us to understand the policy of the tsarist government towards the so-called “foreigners”: in fact, colonial peoples, since in Russia, which had vast undeveloped spaces, colonial expansion was directed not to overseas countries, but to the outskirts of the empire. The relevance of this issue is emphasized by the fact that until today there has been no detailed study of the “Charter”. You can only learn about it from general works

, and even then it is given from several paragraphs to several pages.

Therefore, the purpose of the work is to analyze the “Charter” as a historical source. The tasks facing me are:

study the management of Siberia according to the “Charter”;

analyze the tsarist policy towards “foreigners” according to the “Charter”;

on this basis, characterize the “Charter” as a historical source and determine its value as a historical source.

A detailed analysis of the source with many quotes is given in the work “History of the Yakut Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic” History of the Yakut Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic. M., 1957.. This is the work in which information on the “Charter” is most fully provided.

The same about ideology can be said about the books of Eroshkin N.P. Most of all, his monograph “Essays on the history of state institutions of pre-revolutionary Russia” helped. Eroshkin N.P. Essays on the history of state institutions of pre-revolutionary Russia. M., 1960.

Information about the “Charter” is given in a more condensed form than in the “History of the Yakut ASSR” or even the “History of the Buryat-Mongol ASSR”, but the “Essays” contain information about the compilers of the “Charter”, their intentions and how these intentions were realized.

Monograph by the same Eroshkin N.P. “History of state institutions of pre-revolutionary Russia” Eroshkin N.P. History of state institutions of pre-revolutionary Russia. M., 1983., despite the fact that it was published 23 years after

“Essays” does not offer any new information on the “Charter”; on the contrary, the material is presented more concisely than in essays. The same can be said about the collective work of Eroshkin N.P., Kulikov Yu.V., Chernov A.V. “History of state institutions of Russia before the Great October Socialist Revolution.” Eroshkin N.P., Kulikov Yu.V., Chernov A.V. History of state institutions of Russia before the Great October Socialist Revolution.

CHAPTER 1. MANAGEMENT OF INDIGENOUS PEOPLES OF SIBERIA ACCORDING TO THE “CHARTER ON THE MANAGEMENT OF ALIENS”

1. DIVISION OF FOREIGNERS INTO GROUPS

According to the “Charter”, “all foreign tribes living in Siberia” were divided into three categories: sedentary, nomadic and wandering. The first category included “those living in cities and villages”, the second “nomadic farmers” (Buryats, Kachins), “southern pastoralists and industrialists” (Sagaips, the same Buryats, some groups of southern Tungus) and “northern pastoralists and industrialists." History of the Yakut Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic. M., 1957. P. 168.

The Yakuts were also classified as “nomadic foreigners”. The Charter did not provide any characteristics defining “vagrant foreigners”. Among the peoples classified in this group were the Nenets, “foreigners of Okhotsk, Gnzhiginsky and Kamchatka” and “foreigners of the Yakut region, that is: Koryaks, Yukaghirs, Lamuts, etc.”

The Charter paid the greatest attention to “nomadic” peoples. The decomposition of tribal relations led to the emergence of a feudal elite among these peoples, but the feudal foundations social order These peoples still retained patriarchal forms of social relations. All of these feudal lords, although they seized the best lands for agriculture and nomadism from their relatives, continued to be considered the “ancestor” heads and motivated all their actions by the “interests” of the clan. Eroshkin N.P. Essays on the history of state institutions of pre-revolutionary Russia. M., 1960.S. 242 - 243.

The legal status of “nomadic foreigners” according to the Charter of 1822 was determined as follows. They constituted a “special class”, equated to the peasant class, but different from it “in the form of management.” “Nomadic foreigners” were governed according to “steppe laws and customs peculiar to each tribe.” Only for criminal offenses they had to be tried in the general manner. They retained freedom of religion and worship, and exemption from conscription. They paid taxes according to special position”from the number of souls, which was determined by the general census, and also participated in “general duties throughout the province.”

The Charter of 1822 also determined the economic situation of the “nomadic foreigners.” “Nomadic foreigners have lands assigned to them for each generation.” The distribution of these lands among plots “depends on the nomads themselves, according to lottery or their other customs.” Russians were forbidden to settle without permission on lands allocated to “nomadic foreigners,” but were allowed to take these lands “as quitrent.” Hiring to work for private individuals was permitted only with the knowledge of the tribal authorities. Free trade was allowed at all times in “all supplies and goods,” except wine. Officials were strictly prohibited from trading with “nomadic foreigners.” For the convenience of conducting trade, “foreigners” were assigned places for fairs and their times, in accordance with “the time of payment of taxes and in accordance with the needs of foreigners.” History of the Yakut Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic. M., 1957. P. 168.

The legal status of “vagrant foreigners” according to the Charter of 1822 was not much different from the position of “nomads”. The charter indicated that “the rights of wandering foreigners or hunters living in remote and scattered places generally consist in the application of the rules established for nomadic people.” The only difference was that the “assignment of lands to tribes” and their distribution into plots did not apply to “wandering foreigners.” They were assigned “entire strips of land according to convenience,” within which they were allowed to freely move from county to county and from province to province for fishing purposes. In addition, “wandering foreigners” did not participate in zemstvo provincial monetary duties. Right there. P. 169.

2. MANAGEMENT OF “ALIENERS”

The Charter of 1822 regulated in detail the management system of “nomadic” and “wandering foreigners.” “The condition of foreigners, nomadic and wandering foreigners,” the Charter said,” is distinguished by: 1) the instability of their residence; 2) degree of civil education; 3) simplicity of morals; 4) special customs; 5) way of food; 6) the difficulty of mutual communications;

7) lack of coins in circulation; 8) the lack of ways to sell products and products on the spot.” Hence the following rules. Each camp or ulus, in which there were at least 15 families, was supposed to have its own clan administration, and camps or uluses that had less than 15 families were counted among the nearest camps.

The clan administration consisted of the headman and one or two of his assistants from the “honorable” and “best” clans. The headman, in accordance with custom, was elected or inherited his title. Among his relatives he could bear the “name of prince, zaisan, etc.”, but in relations with the government he was always called the headman.

The elder's assistants were chosen by the relatives for a certain or indefinite period of time. Several camps or uluses of the same kind were subordinate to a “foreign government”, consisting of a head, two elected officials and a clerk.

The head received his title hereditarily or by choice, in accordance with “the wall customs of each tribe.” “Wandering foreigners”, or “hunters”, as in. otherwise they are called the Charter of 1822, they did not have foreign councils, their clan government was limited to one headman, who became “the current princes and other names of honorary people who manage fishermen.”

The rights and obligations of clan administrations and foreign administrations were regulated in detail. The clan administration, as the primary cell of the administrative organization, had “the closest supervision over the order in the clan or inheritance entrusted to it.” For minor offenses it could punish “according to the customs of each tribe and as a domestic correction.” Right there. P. 170.

All government orders were carried out through clan administrations. They were directly entrusted with collecting taxes “for the entire clan, as from one indivisible person.” Foreign administrations were entrusted with supervision of clan administrations and “local orders.”

The latter consisted of: 1) the exact execution of all instructions of the authorities; 2) in compulsion to collect taxes; 3) in maintaining decorum and order; 4) in preserving the rights of foreigners from any extraneous embarrassment; 5) in searches, necessary for special cases.” The foreign council had direct relations with the zemstvo police and carried out all the instructions received from it.

Finally, clan administration and foreign administration also had judicial functions. The clan administration in claims cases had the right of “verbal courts.” In cases between people of different camps or “due to displeasure in the proceedings” of the clan administration, the second degree of “verbal reprisal” was foreign administration;

in cases between people subordinate to different authorities, or as the third and final degree of “verbal punishment” in the event of “dissatisfaction”, the local zemstvo police acted in the proceedings of a foreign administration.

The main task of the “verbal reprisal” was to end disagreements between “foreigners” and reconcile those arguing on the basis of “steppe laws and customs.” Her functions also included the analysis of debt claims and cases of penalties under wedding contracts.

The highest governing body of the “nomadic foreigners” was the steppe duma, which consisted of the main founder and elected assessors, the number of which depended on custom or need. The duties of the steppe duma consisted of: “I) in counting the population; 2) in the layout of fees;

3) in the correct accounting of all amounts and public property; 4) in the spread of agriculture and folk industry; 5) in petitioning the higher authorities for the benefits of relatives.” On these issues, the steppe duma gave orders to foreign administrations and, in turn, was subordinate to the district administration.

The elders of clan administrations, heads of foreign administrations and assessors of wall councils, who took office by “succession” or by choice, were approved by the governor or regional chief. The chief clan leader of the steppe duma was approved by the governor general.

The question of the budget of the “wall administration” in the Ordinance of 1822 was stated unclearly and allowed for various interpretations. On the one hand, it was indicated that the headman, head and other officials do not receive any salary from their relatives and “correct positions under these ranks as a public service.” Right there. pp. 169 - 170.

On the other hand, the Charter emphasized that “the maintenance of the wall administration constitutes the internal duty of the nomads,” and noted the legality of the privileged economic position of the top of the “steppe administration”: “the income that is assigned to their rank according to steppe laws and customs from fisheries and owned lands, remain in the same position... in the collection of steppe laws it has a positive meaning about them.”

The Charter of 1822 defined in detail the procedure for collecting taxes and duties from “foreigners”. Taxes and duties were determined of three types:

government taxes;

zemstvo duties;

internal duties for the maintenance of the steppe administration.

On the procedure for assigning government taxes (yasak) as taxes approved in the center. The Charter of 1822 says nothing. The volume of zemstvo duties for “foreigners” was established by the local Main Directorate. Collections for internal duties were determined by the steppe duma, and where this was not the case, by “the public verdict of foreigners.”

The governor or regional chief compiled a detailed calculation of the fees for each year, including how much each clan and all “foreigners” in the province or region “owed separately for each name,” as well as how much of all fees per soul for each clan. The steppe dumas, having received such a “schedule,” made “allocations” to clan administrations, the latter, in turn, distributed “exactly how much each family was obliged to contribute in animal skins or money, depending on the success of the trades and the condition of each.” The collection of taxes was the responsibility of clan administrations and was carried out at fairs or suglans (“secular meeting of foreigners”), but “wandering foreigners,” “out of respect for their distant absences for trades,” could hand over taxes in other places and even in other districts and provinces .

A special section in the Charter of 1822 is devoted to “state sales.” State trade had a dual purpose: “I) delivery of the necessary benefits for food and crafts of nomads; 2) moderation of free prices for necessary needs.” In extreme cases (threat of famine), the Charter projected the sale of government goods at a reduced price and on credit (“if the need is properly proven”) and under the responsibility of local government representatives. Right there. P. 171.

These are the main provisions of the “Charter on Foreigners” of 1822.

CHAPTER 2. POLICY OF THE ROYAL GOVERNMENT IN RELATION TO THE INDIGENOUS PEOPLES OF SIBERIA ACCORDING TO THE “CHARTER ON THE MANAGEMENT OF FOREIGNERS”

“The charter on the management of foreigners was drawn up by M. M. Speransky and his closest assistant, engineer G. S. Batenkov. They tried to somehow limit the arbitrariness of officials and strengthen control over the actions of the local administration. History of the Buryat-Mongolian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic. Ulan-Ude, 1954. P. 225. P. 222.

The Charter of 1822 was the main legal document that determined the life of “foreigners” in the 19th century. and was active almost until October revolution. When in 1852 Annenkov, after the audit Western Siberia, a special note was submitted to the II Siberian Committee about the inconsistency of the Charter of 1822, it did not find a response in the government, and the Siberian Committee instructed the Siberian governors general “to have strict supervision over the exact implementation of the rules of the Establishment of 1822.”

However, Annenkov’s note about the inconsistency of the Charter of 1822. very indicative. The orderly system of regulation of the Charter in many ways turned out to be unviable and impracticable.

Researchers have repeatedly noted the artificiality of the Charter in some of its parts. It was completely accidental, not based on the study of the life of the peoples of Siberia, that they were divided into “sedentary”, “nomadic” and “wandering”. The rubric “vagrants” itself was artificial, since it was wandering people who moved without a certain order, in Russia there was none at all. The design of clan administrations was also artificial, requiring a camp of 15 families.

With this design living tissue The clan organization - among the peoples in whom it was generally preserved - was torn apart, larger clans were fragmented, smaller ones were joined to others. A direct consequence of this was the creation of the so-called “administrative clans”. At the same time, it is impossible not to emphasize that the Charter of 1822 is the only legislative document of its kind, which has no analogies in the legislation of Western Europe and America.

The Charter generalized and systematized what had developed in the administrative practice of managing the peoples of Siberia; the drafters of the Charter, Speransky and Batenkov, did not discard the customary law of the peoples of Siberia, took it into account and sought to limit the interference of officials in the “steppe management” and limit their abuses. In fact, it’s true, the latter remained on paper.

In many ways, the Charter of 1822 was inconsistent. There is a noticeable tendency in it to support the economy of the peoples of Siberia: it was forbidden to forcibly seize the lands of “foreigners” and forcefully use their labor force, officials were forbidden to trade with them; and the goal of state trade was “to suppress free prices,” that is, to protect commercial exploitation.

The appearance of all these articles is quite understandable. The economy of the bulk of the “foreigners,” especially the peoples of the North, was catastrophically destroyed. A terrible sign of this were the famine years of 1810, 1811, 1814, 1816 and 1817. Arrears grew, the government's fiscal policy was bursting at the seams. In order to ensure the receipt of taxes from the “foreigners,” it was necessary to somehow protect them from the trade bondage that flourished in Siberia, and to ensure their use of their centuries-old lands.

But at the same time, in the Charter of 1822 all this sounded declarative. The Charter did not contain any guarantees. Speaking of government trade. The charter emphasized that it should not exert “the slightest constraint on the industry of private people.” Further practice showed that watchmen of state-owned stores entered into deals with merchants, together with them inflated the prices of goods sold and mercilessly robbed the “foreigners” so protected in the Charter of 1822.

The charter did not contain guarantees regarding the protection of fishing grounds of the indigenous population. Firstly, no land management was carried out (it was not intended by the Charter), which alone could guarantee the preservation of their lands for the “foreigners”, since their ownership and use were not documented. Secondly, the Charter itself opened a loophole in this regard, allowing the taking of land from foreigners “on quitrent basis.” Thirdly, the Charter did not provide for any real measures against unauthorized seizure of land.

All this led to the fact that even after the introduction of the Charter of 1822, which solemnly proclaimed that “foreigners for each generation have lands assigned to them,” the delanding of the indigenous population of Siberia, including in Yakutia, continued on a large scale. Dispossession of land took place in various ways: through “quitrent maintenance” and rent, often indefinite, through purchase and sale (characteristically, the Charter of 1822 says nothing about this), through unauthorized seizure.

The fiscal goals, which the Charter sought to ensure in the first place, appear nakedly and openly in the Charter of 1822. The collection of taxes and duties was carried out by all instances of the “steppe administration” under the direct control of the regional administration. The regional chief himself established how much tax was due from each clan and even from each soul.

The Charter of 1822 did not interfere in the internal life of the “foreigners,” in their way of life and traditions. “Nomadic foreigners generally remain with their previous rights,” “nomads are governed according to the steppe laws and customs peculiar to each tribe,” the Charter emphasized.

The charter provided them with freedom of religion and worship (which, however, did not stop the active policy of Christianization pursued in the 19th century by the tsarism and the church), the right to trial in minor civil cases.

But at the same time, the Charter of 1822 persistently promoted and supported the top of the “foreigners” - the patriarchal-feudal nobility: “Foreigners are governed by their own ancestors and honorable people, of whom their steppe administration is composed.”

Thus, it was in the Charter of 1822 that the alliance of the government with the patriarchal-feudal nobility of the peoples of Siberia, which had emerged in the 17th century, received legislative formalization. Supporting the patriarchal-feudal nobility, strengthening its privileged position, the Charter turned it into its agents, the conductor of its policies. At the same time, he, not completely trusting her, placed her under the strict control of the administrative and judicial imperial apparatus.

Especially in this regard, the importance of the zemstvo police, which is entrusted with “supervision over foreign administrations and clan administrations,” was emphasized. History of the Yakut Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic. M., 1957. P. 172.

The Charter of 1822 summarized and systematized what had developed in the process of administrative practice in managing the peoples of Siberia. At the same time, the compilers of the Ustvo, G.S. Batenkov and M.M. Speransky, sought to limit the interference of officials in the “steppe government”, prevent their abuses, streamline the collection of taxes, limit the personal power of the “main clan bosses” with collegiality “the establishment of steppe dumas, public suglans). However, these aspirations of the drafters of the Charter were not realized.

The tsarist government and its local administration still relied on the exploitative elite - the “steppe aristocracy.” Steppe dumas and clan administrations turned into collegiums of noyons, which used the apparatus of “steppe management” for their own exploitative purposes. History of the Buryat-Mongolian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic. Ulan-Ude, 1954. P. 225.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. History of the Buryat-Mongolian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic. Ulan-Ude, 1954.

2. History of the Yakut Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic. M., 1957.

3. Eroshkin N.P. History of state institutions of pre-revolutionary Russia. M., 1983.

4. Eroshkin N.P. Essays on the history of state institutions of pre-revolutionary Russia. M., 1960.

5. Eroshkin N.P., Kulikov Yu.V., Chernov A.V. History of state institutions of Russia before the Great October Socialist Revolution. M., 1965.

CONCLUSION

So, we looked at the “Charter on the management of foreigners”. As a historical source, it is of great importance, as it provides information about the management of the indigenous peoples of Siberia in Tsarist Russia.

Thanks to this source, we can also find out information about the patriarchal-feudal structure of the “foreigners”, about how this structure was destroyed royal authorities how the landlessness of “foreigners” took place.

In addition, according to the “Charter” we can find out the policy of tsarism towards “foreigners”. The “Charter” was controversial. Undoubtedly, its compilers had good intentions when compiling it. But at the same time, when analyzing the source, one can notice shortcomings in the “Charter”, contradictions that subsequently played important role in the lives of “foreigners”, worsening their situation. Although, of course, the introduction of the “Charter” regulated relations with “foreigners” and protected them from arbitrariness.

ALIENS, in the Russian Empire in the 19th - early 20th centuries, the indigenous peoples of Siberia and Central Asia, the southeastern and northeastern parts of European Russia (“eastern” aliens), as well as Jews of the Jewish faith (“western” aliens). The latter were included in the group of foreigners as non-religious people; Jews who converted to Christianity were no longer considered as foreigners. The term “foreigners” was introduced into official use by the Charter on the Administration of Foreigners of 1822 (before that, the indigenous peoples of Siberia were called yasak people), which divided the indigenous population of Siberia (a similar division was subsequently applied to some groups of foreigners outside Siberia) into settled foreigners ( had a permanent place of residence, but were pagans or Muslims); nomadic foreigners (who changed their place of residence several times a year); wandering foreigners, or “catchers” (who moved “from one place to another along rivers and tracts”). Jews of the Jewish faith were classified as foreigners in 1835.

By the end of the 19th century, “eastern” foreigners lived mainly in Siberia (Buryats, Koryaks, Nenets, Evenks, Yukaghirs, Yakuts, etc.) and in the Central Asian possessions of Russia (Tajiks, Turkmens, Uzbeks, etc.), as well as in the Mezen and Pechora districts of the Arkhangelsk province (Nenets), Astrakhan and Stavropol provinces (Kalmyks); The Kazakhs of the Bukeev Horde and the mountain peoples of the Caucasus were also considered foreigners. “Eastern” foreigners were exempt from conscription (since 1874 military service) (in the 1st world war About 10 thousand Siberian foreigners were mobilized, but they were not sent to the theater of operations and were soon demobilized). Settled foreigners were governed and judged according to all-Russian laws, registered in the estates of merchants, townspeople or state peasants. Nomadic foreigners, moving to sedentary lifestyle life, had the right to enroll in the estates of merchants, townspeople or state peasants (while maintaining freedom from conscription). Nomadic and wandering foreigners had special bodies of self-government. In the late 1890s - early 1900s, to supervise the self-government of Siberian non-Russians, the positions of peasant and non-Russian chiefs, similar to the positions of zemstvo chiefs in European Russia, were introduced. In civil cases and for minor offenses, nomadic and vagrant foreigners were tried according to the norms of customary law, in criminal cases and crimes committed in Russian cities and villages - according to all-Russian laws. Until 1915, the territory of residence of “Western” foreigners was limited to the Pale of Settlement (in the 2nd half of the 19th - early 20th centuries, Jews - representatives of certain socio-professional groups - could settle outside it). They belonged mainly to the classes of burghers, artisans, merchants and honorary citizens, and were subordinate to the general administration. In cities, “Western” foreigners lived together with the rest of the population (however, until 1844 they formed their own community led by the Kagals); V rural areas they formed separate rural societies. “Western” foreigners were exempt from conscription until 1827 (instead of performing the duty, they paid a special fee). The Jews were subject to trial mainly according to all-Russian laws. IN different time There were various restrictions on holding government positions for “Western” foreigners. Since the 1880s, the government has limited their participation in secondary and higher education institutions. Nomadic and wandering foreigners of Siberia paid yasak, Kalmyks, nomadic peoples of the Trans-Caspian region and Turkestan - wagon tax. Fees from “eastern” foreigners were less burdensome than taxes levied on other categories of the population. “Western” foreigners paid national taxes, as well as box and (since 1844) candle taxes to pay arrears on state taxes, for the maintenance of Jewish schools, charitable purposes, urban improvement, etc.

The legislation on foreigners was extensive. The position of the “eastern” foreigners, along with the Charter on the management of foreigners of 1822, was regulated by the provisions on the management of the Kalmyk people from 23.4 (5.5). 1847, on the management of the Turkestan region from 12 (24). from 25.3 (6.4). 1891, etc. Legislation on “Western” foreigners was developed in the 19th century mainly by Jewish committees.

The Russian government pursued a policy of patronage towards the “eastern” foreigners, provided them with food and medical assistance, took measures to regulate the relationship between the tribal nobility and the general population, and sought to protect foreigners from unequal trade with the newcomer population, as well as from the spread of drunkenness. However, these measures were often hampered by abuses of the local administration. Since the end of the 19th century, in order to create a land fund intended for immigrants from European Russia, the government has been reducing the land fund previously allocated for the residence of “eastern” foreigners. The Russian government's policy towards “Western” foreigners was aimed at their Christianization. The Russian government, with various benefits, encouraged the transition of “Western” foreigners to engage in agriculture. Since 1906, all foreigners, both “Eastern” (with the exception of vagrants) and “Western”, enjoyed the right to participate in elections to the State Duma.

In a broad sense, all subjects were called foreigners (especially in the late 19th - early 20th centuries) Russian Emperor, not related to Slavic peoples, for example, Tatars, Bashkirs.

Lit.: Samokvasov D. Ya. Collection of customary law of Siberian foreigners. Warsaw, 1876; Orshansky I.G. Russian legislation on Jews. St. Petersburg, 1877; Golitsyn N.N. History of Russian legislation on Jews. St. Petersburg, 1886. T. 1: 1649-1825; Elnitsky K.V. Foreigners of Siberia and Central Asian possessions of Russia. 2nd ed. St. Petersburg, 1908; Sternberg L. Foreigners: General overview // Forms of national movement in modern states. St. Petersburg, 1910; Pozner S.V. Jews in a general school. St. Petersburg, 1914; Gimpelson Ya. I. Laws on Jews: A systematic review of current laws on Jews: Part 2 of P., 1914-1915; Gessen Yu. I. History of the Jewish people in Russia. M.; Jerusalem, 1993; Konev A. Yu. Indigenous peoples northwestern Siberia in the administrative system of the Russian Empire (XVII - early XX centuries). M., 1995; Jews in Russia. XIX century: [Memoirs]. M., 2000; Kappeler A. Russia is a multinational empire. M., 2000; Yadrintsev N. M. Works. Tyumen, 2000. T. 2: Siberian foreigners, their life and current situation; Ivanova N. A., Zheltova V. P. Class structure of Russia in late XIX- early 20th century M., 2004; Slocum J. W. Who and when were “foreigners”? The evolution of the category “strangers” in the Russian Empire // Russian Empire in foreign historiography. M., 2005; Ivanov A.E. Jewish students in higher school Russian Empire at the beginning of the 20th century. M., 2007.

When the population of a state includes tribes that differ sharply in the degree of culture from the general mass of its subjects, these tribes are often placed in a separate legal position. They are recognized as citizens of the state, but are not subject to general legislation and retain special management. This is the situation in which, for example, the Indians or the Mohammedan natives in Algeria are placed in the United States of North America. Algerian Mohammedan natives are recognized as French subjects, but do not enjoy political rights, are exempt from military service and are subject to special, so-called Arab taxes. In their family and civil relations they obey not the French civil code, but Muslim laws. Upon reaching the age of 21, every Muslim native can become a French citizen by means of a simple application, but then he is already completely subject to French law, even in family relationships, so polygamy is then no longer acceptable for him. Previously, Algerian Jews were in the same position, but by decree of October 24. 1870, on the initiative of Cremieux, they were all granted the rights of French citizenship.¹*

In our country, tribes that are not subject to general legislation or enjoy special governance are called aliens, in contrast to natural inhabitants. The legal status of individual categories of foreigners is extremely different, and the only thing that they all have in common is that the peculiarities of their legal status are determined by belonging to a particular tribe. Therefore, you can only be born a foreigner, but you cannot become one.

Foreigners are divided into several categories. Art. 855 v. IX lists them as follows: 1) Siberian foreigners in general and especially the Siberian Kyrgyz, 2) foreigners of the Commander Islands, 3) Samoyeds, 4) nomadic foreigners of the Stavropol province, 5) Kalmyks, 6) Horde of the Transcaspian region and 7) Jews. This listing, however, does not fully correspond to the current grouping, since the Siberian Kirghiz, together with the Orenburg and foreigners of the Turkestan region, are subject to the same general order of government.²*

All these categories naturally fall into two significantly different categories: 1) Jews and 2) Eastern foreigners, although the legislation does not actually establish such a grouping. The most important difference between Jews and eastern foreigners is that being Jewish is determined not by tribal origin alone, but also by religion; and therefore a Jew who converts to Christianity ceases to be a Jew and a foreigner in the eyes of the law. On the contrary, belonging to the eastern foreigners is conditioned only by a certain tribal origin, and therefore the adoption of Christianity by the eastern foreigner does not ipso jure entail an exit from the state of foreigners. At the same time, eastern foreigners, having become sedentary, can, without any restriction or constraint, enter the estates of urban and rural inhabitants (vol. XI, 841). The Jews, despite the fact that they are all settled, cannot leave the state of foreigners at will. All foreigners in general are divided into settled, nomadic and wandering (Vol. IX, Art. 1)³*. The same division applies in particular to Siberian foreigners, except for the Chukchi, Dzungarians and foreigners of the Commander Islands, who constitute a special category (Pol. foreigners, art. 2, 14). Foreigners who are permanently settled, arable and live in villages or in cities, engaged in trade and fishing of urban inhabitants are called sedentary; nomadic foreigners are those who have a settled life, although permanent, but variable according to the seasons, and do not live in villages, and, finally, among the wandering foreigners are those who, “without any settled residence, move from one place to another through forests and rivers or tracts, for hunting or fishing, in separate clans or families” (Article 3).

According to common law, settled foreigners are compared with natural inhabitants both in rights (Article 16)⁴*, and in the order of management (Institutional regulation of foreigners, Art. 12 and 68)⁵*, and nomadic wandering people form “a special class in equal degree with the class of rural inhabitants, but different from it in the form of management” (vv. 26, 40). Wandering foreigners do not participate in zemstvo duties paid in the provinces. But of these general rules There are also exceptions.

Foreigners of the Turkestan region (Pol. administration of Turk.; art. 9), regions of the Transcaspian (Pol. Transcaspian S.U. 1890, art. 256), Akmola, Semipalatinsk, Semirechensk, Ural and Turgai⁶ * (pol. administration of the regions , Art. 11 Sobr. Uzak., 1891, Art. 469), all indifferent, both sedentary and nomadic, are compared in rights with rural inhabitants. Foreigners of the indicated regions who have converted to Orthodoxy can be assigned to cities and villages without asking for acceptance sentences, and are personally free forever from military service (Article 12). The foreign population of these regions and the Turkestan region is divided into volosts, among the sedentary - into rural, among the nomads - into aul societies. The bodies of rural or aul governance are the village gathering or aul congress, consisting of all householders or tent owners of the society, and the village or aul elder elected by it; volost government bodies - the volost congress of elected representatives, elected by society one from every 50 householders or tent owners, and the volost manager. The volost congress also elects people's judges, acting either individually or as part of congresses of at least three judges. The election period is three years. The volost manager is approved by the governor. If approval is refused, the governor either orders new elections or appoints a governor himself. A minister or governor general may substitute an election for appointment directly by the power of the governor. The rights and responsibilities of volost, rural and aul administration are generally determined by the rules of the general regulations on peasant institutions.

When going to summer or winter camps outside their districts and when passing through foreign districts and regions, nomads are subordinate to the local authorities in police terms, and state and zemstvo fees and duties are served in their districts. Officials during migrations remain at their duties and follow with the largest party of their volost or society, receiving, when migrating from the district, from the district chief a certificate indicating the number of migrating wagons, which is presented to the local authorities during migrations (Pol. Turk., Art. 73-115 , Pol.

On the other hand, the settled foreigners of the Commander Islands enjoy a special legal status, being completely exempt from any duties, taxes, or yasak. They are governed by their tohen (vv. 17-25).

Siberian nomadic foreigners have assigned lands for each generation, on which they have complete freedom to engage in agriculture, cattle breeding and local crafts. On the lands allocated to nomadic foreigners, Russians are prohibited from settling without permission, but they can be taken into quitrent maintenance according to the conditions with foreign societies. Trade with nomadic foreigners is free for all supplies and products, except for hot drinks. In their mutual relations, foreigners are guided by their own tribal customs. Foreigners who enjoy honorary titles, for example, princes, toyons, taishas, ​​zaisangs, shulengs, enjoy advantages and distinctions according to local customs. These titles are recognized as hereditary or lifelong, depending on what they were before 1822. Foreigners have the right to send their children to state-owned educational institutions and to establish their own educational institutions with the permission of governors. Nomadic foreigners participate in the general duties of the province, and the content of the foreign administration constitutes their internal duty (Articles 26-39).

Each camp, or ulus, with at least 15 families, receives a special clan administration, consisting of a headman and one or two of his assistants from the honorable and best clans. The headman is elected or inherits this title, depending on customs. But in no case can the hereditary title of headman pass to a woman (Vol. IX, Art. 892)⁷*. Among foreigners he may be called various honorary titles, but in relations with the government he is always called headman. Assistant wardens are always appointed by election for a definite or indefinite period. Only those who have reached 21 years of age, have their own household, have not been discredited by the court and are not under trial or investigation can be elected to office (Vol. IX, Art. 893)*. Several camps are subordinate to a foreign government, consisting of a head, two elected representatives and, if it is possible to establish a clerkship, a clerk. Heads, like elders, are either elective or hereditary. Many clans, united into one common dependence, like the Transbaikal Buryats, are subordinate to a special steppe duma, consisting of the main ancestor (taisha, etc.), heads and elected assessors. Headmen, elected assessors and heads, hereditary or elective, are all the same confirmed in positions by the governor, and the main ancestor - by the governor general (Vol. IX, Art. 894, 895)*. When baptized foreigners are in charge of the steppe duma, special electors are appointed from them. The duties of the steppe duma are: 1) in counting the population, 2) in distributing taxes, 3) in accounting for public sums and property, 4) in the spread of agriculture and foreign industry, 5) in petitioning the higher authorities for the benefits of the relatives. Tribal administrations and foreign administrations are in charge of local deanery and improvement, as well as the distribution and collection of taxes. In addition, clan administrations, foreign councils (but not steppe dumas) are bodies of verbal reprisal between foreigners in judicial matters. Complaints against decisions of foreign councils are brought local police, and for the police - to the district court (Ust. administrative foreign, art. 17‑32, 36‑43, 71‑111, 130, app.)¹⁰*.

Wandering foreigners generally enjoy the same rights as nomadic ones; but 1) the assignment of lands by tribe does not apply to them, 2) in the strip allotted to them they can freely move from province to province and 3) they do not participate in monetary zemstvo duties or in the maintenance of steppe administration (Vol. IX, Art. 856)¹¹*. Their administration is characterized by the fact that they have neither steppe dumas nor foreign administrations, and the clan administration consists of one headman (Institutional administration of foreigners, art. 33-35)¹²*.

Regarding the Samoyeds of the Mezen district, various volumes of the Code contain contradictory definitions. Art. 876 of Volume IX recognizes them as nomadic foreigners, and Art. 226 Pol. foreign - strays, and both of these articles are based on the same § 1 of the Charter on the management of Samoyeds on April 18, 1835 (No. 8071). In the original text of the Charter, Samoyeds are called strays and, in accordance with this, they are still in force today. 881 t. IX¹³* do not participate in zemstvo monetary duties in the province, while nomadic foreigners do participate in them.

The main administration of Samoyeds belongs to the Ministry of State Property, and local management belongs to the Administration of State Property of the Arkhangelsk Province. The clan administration in each of the three tundras allocated to the Samoyeds of Timanskaya, Kaninskaya and Bolshezemelskaya consists of an elder elected for a three-year term and referred to as the headman in relations with the government. In addition, assistant elders are elected. At the request of the society, the term of election can be shortened. Headmen and their assistants are confirmed in positions as managers of state property. If a crime is committed or a family member requests it, the manager may remove these persons from office ahead of schedule. Verbal reprisal between Samoyeds is determined by the same rules that are established for Siberian foreigners (Vol. IX, Art. 901-905; Institution of Foreign Regulations, Art. 432-468)¹⁴*.

The Kirghiz, wandering in the steppes between the Caspian Sea, Ural region and the province of Astrakhan under the name of the Kirghiz of the Internal or Bukey Horde, are in the department of the Ministry of Internal Affairs. Until 1845, this Horde was ruled by khans from the family of Sultan Bukey-Nuraliev. But after the death of Khan Jangra, the son of Bukey, in 1845, the khan’s dignity was destroyed and a temporary council was approved from the relatives of the late khan and one official from the Ministry of State Property. Then, in 1858, the council was transformed in the sense of strengthening the Russian element in it and removing state property from the jurisdiction of the ministry. Administratively, the Inner Horde is now subordinate Astrakhan Governor, and in the judicial - the Astrakhan joint chamber of criminal and civil courts¹⁵*.

The temporary council consists of a chairman, an adviser from Russian officials and advisers from the Horde. The chairman is appointed from both civilian and military ranks by the Minister of Internal Affairs on the proposal of the Astrakhan governor. Advisors from Russian officials are also appointed. Advisors from the Horde are appointed mainly from Kyrgyz who completed a course in the Orenburg Neplyuevsky Cadet Corps, by the Astrakhan governor on the proposal of the chairman of the council. The council decides all cases that previously depended on the khan, that is, all civil claims between the Kyrgyz and criminal cases - cases of minor crimes and thefts up to 30 rubles. If the majority of council members disagree with the chairman, judicial cases are presented to the joint chamber, and administrative cases to the Astrakhan governor (Ust. The entire horde is divided into seven parts (the first and second Caspian, Kamysh-Samar, Naryn, Kalmyk, Talov and Torgun). Each part is headed by a special ruler from the Horde. Units are divided into seniorities, and seniorities into auls. The managers of all these divisions are elected by the Horde.

The main administration of the Kalmyks wandering in the Astrakhan province belongs to the Ministry of State Property. The manager of state property of the Astrakhan province is at the same time the main trustee of the Kalmyk people; under him there is a special administration of the Kalmyk people, which, in addition to government officials, also includes a deputy from the Kalmyk people. According to their composition, Kalmyks are divided into commoners and a privileged class - Noyons and Zaisangs. Previously, the Kalmyks had serfdom, but by law on March 16, 1892 it was destroyed. In relation to local government, the Kalmyk people are divided into seven uluses, each ulus consists of several clans or aimaks, and each aimak is divided into khotons, consisting of at least 15 tents.

In all uluses and aimaks there are ulus and aimak gatherings. Ulus gatherings meet once every three years; emergency meetings, if necessary, are convened by the trustee of the Kalmyk people. The ulus gathering is composed of noyons and zaisangs, one from each family, from all aimak elders and khoton elders and from Kalmyk commoners elected from the khotons, one from every 20 tents. The permanent management of the uluses belongs to the ulus trustee. Ulus trustees are elected by the chief trustee from among the officials and, with the approval of the governor, are approved by the Minister of State Property.

The aimak gathering consists of zaisangs, one from each family, Khoton headmen and Kalmyks elected from Khotons, one from every five tents. Only Kalmyks who are at least 25 years old, have their own household and have not been defamed in court can participate in gatherings, both aimak and ulus. Participation in meetings and acceptance of elected positions is mandatory. Failure to appear at a meeting will result in a fine of one ruble. The aimak assembly meets on dates set by the state property department. The aimak assembly has the right to expel vicious Kalmyks and provide them with... government order.

Aimak elders and khoton elders are elected at a meeting for a period of three years. Aimak elders are elected from zaisangs of non-aimak people or commoners, and Khoton elders are elected only from commoners.

To consider court cases between Kalmyks, ulus zargos are organized, consisting of the chairmanship of the ulus trustee, his assistant and two assessors elected for three years by the ulus assembly from the aimak-free zaisangs (Vol. IX, Art. 919-943; Institution of foreign administration, Art. 584‑718¹⁷*; M. G. S. March 16, 1892 Coll., No. 46, Art.

The nomadic foreigners of the Stavropol province, Kalmyks, Nogais, Karanogais, Yedishkuls, Trukhmenis and Kyrgyz are also under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of State Property. Their administration is concentrated in the hands of the chief bailiff, subordinate to the local governor. To assist the chief police officer, private police officers are assigned to the nomadic camps. Internal management by foreigners is composed of themselves by election for a period of three years. In each department or volost, a head, two elders and a treasurer are elected, and in auls - aul elders, but the number of these officials can be changed by the power of the minister. In addition, officials, with a limited number of honorary people, as appointed by their superiors, gather annually at the private bailiff’s headquarters to discuss public affairs. In judicial terms, all nomadic foreigners of the Stavropol province are subordinate to the department of general judicial regulations. The ulus zargo among the Kalmyks of the Stavropol province performs the functions of a volost court (vol. IX, art. 906‑918¹⁸* Institution of foreign administration, art. 515‑579)¹⁹*.

Jews occupy a significantly special position compared to other foreigners. I have already said that being a Jew is determined not only by tribal origin, but also by religion, and that at the same time a Jew cannot leave the state of being a foreigner at will. It must be added to this that Jews do not, like other foreigners, inhabit lands specially allocated to them, but live interspersed with the natural inhabitants in cities and villages. This, of course, explains that the law requires all Jews to be assigned to one of the states established in the state (Vol. IX, Art. 768). By virtue of this inclusion in the merchant, guild, and petty-bourgeois society, Jews do not, however, cease to be foreigners.

The requirement to register Jews with one of the class societies natural inhabitants seems to suggest that the Jews themselves do not constitute any special Jewish societies. However, in reality this is not the case. By establishing the mandatory registration of Jews in the societies of natural inhabitants, our legislation unites the Jews themselves into local Jewish societies, which, of course, artificially maintains Jewish isolation and solidarity. Although the existing kagals were abolished by the law of December 19, 1844²⁰*, which decreed that “no special Jewish administration should not exist, and therefore all kagals are destroyed, and their affairs are immediately transferred, according to their ownership, to city dumas and town halls” (P.S.Z. No. 18546), however, the legislator’s goal was not actually realized, due to the fact that they were preserved special Jewish fees, box and candle fees, to which Jewish societies are subject. That is why the current legislation recognizes the existence of special Jewish societies everywhere (for example, in Article 823 of the Institution of Foreign Regulations; Article 1 of the Appendix to Article 281 of the Institution of Taxation)²¹*. Jews living in cities elect special tax collectors who perform the duties of petty-bourgeois and guild elders (Ukrainian foreign administration, art. 821)²²*. The allocation of fees among Jews for the maintenance of Jewish public charitable and service items is done by special authorized representatives elected by the Jewish society (Constitution of taxes, Art. 280, Appendix, Art. 2)²³*.

Although Jews are not allocated a special area for their exclusive settlement, like other foreigners, Jews still do not enjoy freedom of movement, and can, as a general rule, settle only in so-called areas. the Jewish Pale of Settlement, which constitutes the most significant feature of the legal status of the Jews. They can settle only in the provinces of the former Kingdom of Poland, Bessarabian, Vilna, Volyn, Grodno, Ekaterinoslav, Kovno. Minsk, Mogilev, Podolsk, Poltava, Tauride, Kherson, Chernigov and Kiev, except for the city of Kyiv. In the Courland province, only Jews who settled there before 1835 are allowed to live, and in the provinces of Vitebsk and Mogilev only to live without settling down permanently (Ust. pas., art. 12)²⁴*. Jews are allowed to stay outside these areas only temporarily: 1) to accept an inheritance, 2) to seek legal property rights in judicial and government places, 3) for trade affairs and for bidding on contracts and supplies that are to be made within the Jewish settlement. In addition, Jews registered in the first guild are allowed to come: 1) to capitals and other cities twice a year to buy goods so that their stay does not exceed 6 months a year, and 2) to fairs in Nizhny Novgorod, Irbit, Kharkov and Sumy for purchase and wholesale. Jews registered in the second guild are allowed to come to cities outside the Pale of Settlement only once a year for 2 months, to the Epiphany and Summer fairs in Kyiv (Articles 157-166)²⁵*. However, the regulations on the Jewish Pale of Settlement do not have unconditional force. Quite a few Jews are allowed to live everywhere. This right is enjoyed specifically by: 1) Jews who have been enrolled in the first guild for at least five years; 2) Jews with academic degrees; 3) have completed a course in higher educational institutions; 4) dentists, pharmacists, paramedics, midwives, and 5) those in higher education or studying pharmacy, paramedical or midwifery (Article 12, paragraph II)²⁶*.

By the temporary rules of May 3, 1882, and within the Jewish Pale of Settlement, Jews were prohibited from: 1) re-settling outside cities and towns, with the exception of the Jewish colonies engaged in agriculture that existed before 1882; 2) acquire ownership, lease or mortgage real estate outside cities and towns (Vol. IX, Art. 778, note 1). It is also forbidden for Jews to settle again at a distance of 50 versts from the border (Constitution of Pas., Art. 18).

Jews who do not have academic degrees of doctor, master or candidate are prohibited from entering the civil government service (Constitution of service rights, articles 9 and 40). But since in our country the right to enter the civil service for everyone is generally conditioned either by origin or by higher education²⁸*, this rule cannot have a particularly restrictive meaning for Jews. If it had not been in the code, then only the children of Jewish merchants of the first guild and Jews graduating from secondary schools with medals would have received the right to serve.

Special restrictions established for Jews also include the prohibition to wear special clothing and the prohibition for Jewish women to shave their heads (Vol. IX, Art. 775).

All these special regulations apply only to Jewish rabbis. Karaites are not classified as Jews by law and enjoy general rights on an equal basis with ordinary people.

Notes:

¹* Despagnet, Droit international, 1819, p. 218.

²* In IX vol. ed. 1899 foreigners are divided into the following categories: 1) Siberian foreigners; 2) Samoyeds of the Arkhangelsk province; 3) nomadic foreigners of the Stavropol province; 4) Kalmyks wandering in the Astrakhan and Stavropol provinces; 5) Kirghiz of the Inner Horde; 6) foreigners of the regions of Akmola, Semipalatinsk, Semirechensk, Ural and Turgai; 7) foreign population of the Trans-Caspian region; 8) Jews (762).

³* [In the edition of Vol. IX St. zak. 1899 this division is omitted].

⁴* [Art. 45th floor about foreigners ed. 1892]

⁵* [Art. 41 and 135.]

⁶* Former Siberian and Orenburg Kirghiz, Dungans and Taranchi.

⁷* [Art. 123 floors about foreign ed. 1892]

⁸* [Art. 124.]

⁹* [Art. 119, 118.]

¹⁰* [Gender. about foreigners ed. 1892, art. 46‑63,67‑74,138‑178, 38, adj.]

¹¹* [Art. 40th floor about foreigners ed. 1892]

¹²* [Pos. about foreigners. Art. 64‑66.]

¹³* [Art. 234 floors about foreigners ed. 1892]

¹⁴* [Regulations on foreigners Art. 244‑248, 265‑268.]

¹⁵* According to the note to Art. 581 provisions on foreigners cont. 1906, criminal and civil cases arising in the nomads of the Kirghiz of the Inner Horde were subject to the jurisdiction of the Astrakhan District Court on the same grounds that had previously guided the Astrakhan Chamber of Criminal and Civil Court in relation to these cases.

¹⁶* [Pos. about foreigners, art. 581-588 (see cont. 1906).]

¹⁷* [Pos. about foreign ed. 1892, art. 441‑464. Art. 584‑718 institution ex. foreign correspond to various Art. floor. about foreigners ed. 1892 See compare, op. articles gender about foreigners, ed. 1857 and 1892, as well as cont. 1906]

¹⁸* [Art. 374‑386 floors about foreign ed. 1892]

¹⁹* [See compare decree. articles gender about foreigners ed. 1857 and 1892, as well as cont. 1906]

²⁰* In the city of Riga and in the cities of the Courland province they were destroyed only in 1893.

²¹* [See City. Floor. ed. 1892 Art. 6 and 95 (approx.); zak. about the state, vol. IX ed. 1899 Art. 792, 816 and appl. to the last one.]

²²* [Art. 821 institution ex. foreign, corresponding to Art. 280 mouth about taxes has been cancelled.]

²³* [App. to Art. 280 mouth taxes are excluded.]

²⁴* [Charter on passports ed. 1903, app. to Art. 68.]

²⁵* [App. to Art. 68 lips about pas. ed. 1903, mouth. about nak. Art. 63; zak. comp. ed. 1899, art. 785 and 2 approx. to Art. 828.]

²⁶*

²⁷* [Highest approval. June 16, 1905 by the opinion of the States. The Council decided: “the effect of note 1 to Art. 779 laws on states (St. Law, vol. IX, ed. 1899) prohibiting Jews in the Pale of Settlement from henceforth to settle outside cities and towns does not apply to: a) apothecary assistants, dentists, paramedics and midwives, and b) masons, masons, carpenters, plasterers, gardeners, paving makers and diggers.” May 10 and December 6, 1903, as well as November 24, 1905. The lists of settlements located within the Jewish Settlement, in which Jews are allowed to reside, were approved by the highest order.]

²⁸* [The Highest Decree of October 5, 1906 stated: “to be granted to all Russian subjects, regardless of their origin, with the exception of foreigners (St. Law, Vol. IX, ed. 1899 Leg. Stat., Art. 762), identical in respect civil service rights, in relation to such rights of persons of the nobility, with the abolition of all special advantages for occupying, as determined by the government, certain positions depending on class origin.”]

Publication of the Society of Devotees of Russian Historical Enlightenment in memory of the Emperor Alexandra III. With funds from the fund named after Count P.S. Stroganov and I.P. Khrushchov.
A.E. Alektorov.

Foreigners in Russia.

Contemporary issues. Finnish people. Poles. Latvians. Jews. Germans. Armenians. Tatars. With a preface and addition by A.S. Budilovich.

134 pages

St. Petersburg. Printing house of I.V. Leontiev, Baskov lane, building 4. 1906

Preface. Foreigners in Russia

During my trip to the Western Siberian educational district in the fall of 1904, to get acquainted with the educational institutions of this region, I had to meet in the city of Omsk with the director of public schools of the Akmola and Semipalatinsk regions, Alexander Efimovich Alektorov. I already knew his name before as one of the energetic workers of Russian-foreign education between...

Chapters 1-4. Foreigners in Russia

Chapter 1 Russia is a largely foreign country. If you look at the ethnographic map of the Russian Empire, you can see foreigners everywhere: in the north, in the east, in the south, in the west, and even in the very center of Russia; They live in groups and solid masses; They occupy vast areas like the Caucasus, ...

Chapter 5. Foreigners in Russia

Fifty years ago, the Swedish poet Kwanten developed the idea of ​​the Northern European States, which included Sweden, Norway, Denmark and Finland. The Swedish newspaper, now defunct, “Helsingfors Dagblad” argued that Finland is a state separate from Russia, united with it only by “personal union” and that in the event of, for example, war...

Chapters 6-8. Foreigners in Russia

There is no way to describe all the furies and outrages directed against Russia that have occurred and are occurring in Finland, especially recently, because such a description would take up several volumes. We will introduce readers here only to the Finnish court and the importation into Finland of weapons and military supplies necessary for the uprising of the people. Regarding the trial...

Chapters 9-13. Foreigners in Russia

Everything that we encountered in Finland, we encounter here too, only to an incomparably greater extent. In Poland, the Russian people are literally under siege and government agents are being shot. The blood freezes in the veins from the horrors that the residents of Warsaw, Lodz and other cities of the Vistula region have to endure. A cruel, irreconcilable war was declared by the Poles against the Russians...

Chapters 14-17. Foreigners in Russia

Jews... This is the most painful place in our fatherland. Jews are found in all European countries, with the exception of Norway. In the Middle Ages they were oppressed and persecuted everywhere. Persecution became especially frequent during the Crusades and the Plague (1348–1350). IN modern times The emancipation or civil equality of Jews arose, however, in...

Chapters 18-21. Foreigners in Russia

In view of the outlined direction of Jewish activity in general, it was necessary to limit some of the rights of Jews. In Finland, we read in the news of the Alliance Israelite Universelle for 1904, Jews enjoy the right of residence in Helsingfors, Vyborg and Abo; Even temporary stay in other areas of the region is prohibited for them. Jews living in Finland are prohibited from marrying foreign and...

Chapters 22-24. Foreigners in Russia

Now it’s the Armenians’ turn. Both in their character and in the direction of their practical activities, Armenians resemble Jews. Until the end of the 9th century, they constituted a strong state, rich in all the gifts of nature, but then they could not resist their stronger neighbors and fell under foreign rule; some of them remained in their homeland, others scattered to...

Chapters 25-28. Foreigners in Russia

It would seem that in this state of affairs, foreigners should have the kindest, even tender feelings, but we never saw this. Since the time Crimean peninsula had to accept alien rulers (1783), its population began to decrease - many areas turned into desert. In 1736...

Chapters 29-34. Foreigners in Russia

Who does not know the general view of the Mohammedans on the Russian faith as the most gross idolatry? They have lived among us for more than three hundred years and, to their shame, they still do not know what concepts Russians have about God, what kind of faith we have. Chuvash, Cheremis and other foreigners who adhere to the beliefs of their ancestors, Tatar scientists...

Finland. Foreigners in Russia

In view of the fact that the data collected by Mr. Alektorov about the events of our outlying life are interrupted in September 1905, we allow ourselves to supplement this chronicle with a schematic list of the most important events in our outskirts over the past eight months Finland Our October strike railways, post offices, telegraphs and industrial establishments spread to Finland. Reflected there and...

Estonians and Latvians. Foreigners in Russia

The socialist and agrarian movement in the Latvian regions, which began in the summer of 1905, continued into the autumn. It especially played out after October 17, right up to the beginning of December. The Latvian-Jewish gangs became so strong at this time that they captured several significant cities, for example, Vindava, Goldingen, Tukkum, Valk. One gang was even heading to the city...

Zhmud and Lithuania. Foreigners in Russia

Among the Zhmudyaks and Litvins, the revolutionary movement manifested itself in the fall of 1905, mainly in the Kovno province, especially in the counties of Novoaleksandrovsky, Ponevezhsky and Shavelsky adjacent to Courland, and then in Vilkomirsky and many others. The main hangout of revolutionaries was the city of Ponevezh. Back in September 1905, two volosts of the Ponevezh district stopped paying Russians...

Poland. Foreigners in Russia

Nowhere, perhaps, did the waves of our “liberation movement” diverge as high as in Poland. They were expressed not only in factory, railway and postal strikes, but also in street demonstrations, among which the Warsaw ones from October 18 to 20, 1905 are especially memorable. Hundreds of thousands of people walked the streets with church banners...

Kholm region. Foreigners in Russia

A very peculiar light is cast on Polish autonomy and freedom by the events caused in the Kholm region, first by the act on freedom of religion, issued on April 17, and then by the liberation manifesto on October 17. Under the influence of these acts, Polish landowners and priests launched a persecution against all Orthodox people of the Kholm region and Podlasie, demanding an immediate conversion to Catholicism. ...

White Rus'. Foreigners in Russia

Although White Rus' is not part of Poland and is in direct contact with the Great Russian centers of the Empire, recently phenomena have been discovered there that indicate a strong growth of the Polish region. In many Orthodox parishes, especially in the Vilna province, under the influence of Polish agitation, attacks were carried out against Orthodox Christians, fanatized by Polish peasants...

Ukraine. Foreigners in Russia

To characterize the Ukrainian popular movement during the period of unrest, the events that took place in the city of Nizhyn regarding the promulgation of the Supreme Manifesto of October 17, 1905 seem extremely interesting. On October 18, a crowd of demonstrators consisting of high school students, lyceum students and Jews staged a procession through the city with red flags, and speeches were made calling for a fight against the government. ...

Jews. Foreigners in Russia

The extensive role of Jews in the turmoil of our “liberation movement” was expressed with particular force in the fall of 1905, not only in the Jewish Pale of Settlement, that is, in the western outskirts of Russia, but throughout the entire Empire. They were the main figures in the September and October rallies; They organized street demonstrations in all cities, with the Reds...

Caucasus. Foreigners in Russia

The main figures of the unrest in the Caucasus, which broke out with particular force in October and November 1905, and ended - and then conditionally only - in January 1906, were the Armenians, followed by the small peoples of the Kartvelian tribe - Georgians, Imeretians, Mingrelians, Gurians. Although the total number of all these peoples does not exceed 2.5...

Muslims. Foreigners in Russia

In the heat of polemics between Armenians and Tatars, caused by their bloody clashes in Baku, Shushi, Elisavetpol, Tiflis and other cities, the former reproached the latter for political separatism, aimed allegedly at the annexation of Russian Muslims, either to Persia (Shiites) or to Turkey (Sunnis) . It is very possible that such aspirations were expressed more or less disguised in...

Mongols. Foreigners in Russia

In the Russian Empire, only the Kalmyks living in the Don-Volga steppes and the Buryats in the Baikal region belong to the Mongol tribe in a close sense. There is no exact information about how much the recent turmoil affected them. But it is known that both of them came to St. Petersburg in the winter with special deputations, composed partly of lamas, partly of...