Octavian Caesar Roman Emperor. Octavian Augustus is the first Roman emperor, the adopted son of Guy Julius Caesar. Traditions and foreign policy
In 31 BC. e. Octavian Augustus - Roman consul and member of the previously ruling triumvirate - seized full power, becoming the sole owner of a huge empire. This event marked the end of the almost 500-year history of the Roman Republic and marked the beginning of the establishment of an unlimited dictatorship in it.
Heir to a rich family
The future Roman emperor Octavian Augustus (born Gaius Octavius Furinus) came from a privileged class called “equites” (horsemen). His ancestors were once engaged in banking operations, and thereby laid the foundation for the well-being of their descendants. Despite the wealth that belonged to him, the Octavian family did not belong to the Roman elite; subsequently, the emperor’s political opponents reproached him for lacking a proper pedigree.
The date of birth of Octavian Augustus is considered to be September 23, 63 BC. e., so, at least, claimed his contemporary, the ancient Roman historian Gaius Suetonius, but the exact place of birth is unknown, but it is generally accepted that it happened in the capital of the empire. When the future dictator was barely 5 years old, his father (also Gaius), who was acting as governor of Macedonia at that time, died, and his mother remarried, this time to the consul Lucius Philip.
Under the patronage of Caesar
From that time on, young Octavian was given to be raised by his maternal grandmother, who was the sister of Emperor Gaius Julius Caesar (pictured below). This played a decisive role in his life. When a few years later the ruler of the empire returned from the Gallic War and met his young nephew, he was amazed at the level of knowledge that he was able to acquire under the guidance of the best teachers in the capital. Foreseeing in him a successor to his affairs, the emperor adopted the young man, opening up limitless prospects for him. In addition, he drew up a will, according to which the newly-minted stepson was to receive most of his inheritance.
Having become related to the great Caesar, Octavian Augustus, despite his youth, became a very influential figure in Rome, many high-ranking officials sought his patronage. According to the legislation that existed at that time, imperial power was not inherited, and it could only be obtained by winning a popular election. However, having become Caesar's stepson, Octavian gained support from the Roman army, which deified their ruler. Subsequently, this became a decisive factor in the struggle for power.
Popularity bought with money
When in March 44 BC. e. Julius Caesar was killed by the conspirators, his stepson was in Greece, where he was preparing to lead the legions going to war with Dacia. He also, despite the support of the army, was in danger of becoming a victim of a power struggle. Nevertheless, Octavian Augustus found the courage to come to Rome; he was able to consistently carry out a number of events that helped strengthen his authority among the population.
In particular, from the inheritance he received, each was given a hefty sum - 300 sesterces, which the murdered emperor allegedly intended for this purpose. Such generosity brought Octavian to the brink of ruin, but at the same time made him a universal idol, while the main contender for the imperial throne, Mark Antony, was catastrophically losing his popularity. Then he began to be called Gaius Octavian Augustus Caesar.
Creation of a ruling triumvirate
Taking advantage of his popularity, he went to the south of Italy and, having gathered there an army of thousands of opponents of his competitor Antony and his supporters, moved it to Rome. Thus began the civil war, which ended with the victory of Octavian in the battle of the city of Mutina (hence the name - Mutino War).
However, very soon yesterday’s opponents were forced to unite to fight a common enemy - the Republican Party, which was gaining more and more strength in Rome and intended to return the country to its previous form of government. Octavian and Antony found support in the person of the consul Marcus Lepidus, creating a governing body that took the name of the Second Triumvirate. Together, they inflicted a crushing defeat on the defenders of Rome's freedom, destroying more than 300 senators, about 2,000 horsemen and a huge number of ordinary soldiers who took their side. Their last victims were the recent killers of Caesar - Brutus and Cassius.
Beginning of the war with Mark Antony
The triumvirate completed its victory over the Republicans by dividing the territories subordinate to Rome. Octavian Augustus became all European colonies, Antony took control of Asia, and Lepidus got Africa, but he was soon forced to step down from power, losing it to more energetic competitors. At the same time, not wanting to remain in the role of only a co-ruler of the state and dreaming of the imperial throne, the stepson of Julius Caesar significantly strengthened his popularity among the troops by distributing to them all the confiscated lands.
On his path to sole power, he was helped by the reckless behavior of Anthony (pictured above), who, having fallen under the feminine charms of the Egyptian queen Cleopatra, began to give away Roman provinces to her children. This caused a wave of indignation in Italy, which Octavian did not fail to take advantage of. Having inspired the people with patriotic speeches and enlisted the support of the army, he declared war on the insidious Egyptian woman and her lover.
Establishment of one-man rule
For Anthony and Cleopatra, this turn of events ended in disaster. Their joint fleet was defeated at the Battle of Actium, which took place in 31 BC. uh, and they themselves, in order to avoid shame, committed suicide. Octavian's return to Rome resulted in a real triumph, to which many days of celebrations were dedicated.
Having dealt with Anthony, Octavian became the sole ruler of Rome, but he was faced with a choice as to which form of government to prefer - republican or monarchical. After some hesitation, he settled on the second option, thereby ending the almost 500-year-old Roman Republic.
Fearing the discontent of the masses, Octavian retained some state institutions, such as the Senate, popular assemblies, independent courts and some others, but at the same time he himself occupied a number of key administrative positions. Gradually establishing his power and putting an end to the opposition, he became emperor - the sole and absolute master of the Great Roman Empire.
"Father of the Fatherland"
Contemporaries of the Roman Emperor Octavian Augustus, as well as historians of subsequent centuries, argued that through his further activities he greatly contributed to the development and prosperity of the state. The scope of his personal intervention was unusually wide, including issues related to various areas of life. It is known that Octavian, who was the author of many progressive laws for his time, was able to significantly change public morals for the better and increase discipline in the army.
During the reign of Octavian Augustus, the number of colonies of the Roman Empire increased and, accordingly, the influx of tribute received from them increased, which could not but affect the general well-being of citizens. For his tireless patronage of science and art, the Senate awarded its ruler the honorary title of “Father of the Fatherland” and named the 8th month of the year August in his honor. As you know, this name has survived centuries, surviving to this day.
Emperor's foreign policy
The reign of Emperor Octavian Augustus was filled with numerous wars, in which he personally led the army only once, during the Spanish campaign. In most cases, this mission was entrusted to his military leaders Drusus and Tiberius. He made the latter his legal successor in his will.
The Roman army, which was the most powerful military force in the world at that time, managed to make even Germany part of its European colonies for some time. As for such peoples of the ancient world as the Illyrian, Pannonian, Alpine and Gaul tribes, they remained under the rule of Rome until its final fall in the 4th century.
Sad ending of life
It seemed that fate, having poured out all its bounties on Octavian Augustus Caesar, turned his life into an endless holiday. However, this was far from the case. The success that accompanied him in political affairs and military campaigns was fatally combined with sorrow emanating from the depths of his family. Having received full power, the emperor established a law on succession to the throne, according to which he had the right to appoint his successor. Without waiting for the birth of his son, he pinned his hopes on his grandchildren - Gaius and Lucius, the nephew of Drusus. However, all three died in their youth, leaving him no opportunity to become the founder of the ruling dynasty.
But what caused Octavian the most grief was his wife Agrippa and daughter Julia, who became famous throughout the empire for their unheard-of debauchery. Even with the extremely loose morals that reigned in Roman society, these ladies managed to cross all conceivable and unimaginable boundaries, making the emperor a laughing stock in the eyes of the people.
Desperate to somehow influence them, the unfortunate husband and father decided to retire to one of the Mediterranean provinces to rest and improve his nerves, but on the way he fell ill and died on August 19, 14. Thus, in the 45th year of his reign, the era of Octavian Augustus Caesar ended, putting an end to republican rule in the country and marking the birth of the cult of the emperor.
Augustus Octavian, Roman Emperor (63 BC - 14 AD). Augustus is an honorary name, given by the Senate in 27 BC. Guy Octavius is the name given at birth. From 44 BC known as Gaius Julius Caesar after his adoptive father's name. For the period 44-27. BC. in English historical scholarship it is customary to call him Octavian, although he himself never used the name Octavian. The name Augustus (Greek: Sevastos) was in fact borne by all subsequent emperors of Rome, but historians have never used this name to single out anyone in particular.
Octavius was born in Rome on September 23, 63 BC. and came from a wealthy and respected, but closed family from the city of Velitra, Latium region. His father, Gaius Octavius (d. 58 BC), the first member of the family to become a senator, was praetor in 61 and successfully ruled Macedonia. His mother, Atia, was the daughter of Julia, sister of the great Julius Caesar. And this relationship determined Octavius’s career. Caesar singled out young Octavius from among his relatives, placing special hopes on him: he presented him with military insignia at his African triumph, took him with him to the Spanish campaign of 45, made him a patrician and ensured his election as pontiff. Finally, due to the absence of a legitimate son, Caesar in his will declared Octavius to be his adopted son and heir to three-quarters of the property.
The period of exaltation.
When Caesar was assassinated in 44, Octavius was receiving his education in Apollonia Illyria. He went to Italy and, having learned that he had become the son and heir of Caesar, decided to seek a dangerous inheritance. His position was very weak. Caesar's heir was a reserved eighteen-year-old youth, without experience or influential connections. The anti-Caesarian party treated him with natural suspicion, and the recognized leader of the Caesarians, Mark Antony, having seized Caesar's money and archive, refused him. Having only the fact of Caesar's adoption to his credit, Octavius immediately appropriated the name of Caesar, distributed the money due to the people, according to Caesar's will, from his own pocket, and arranged at his own expense ludi Victoriae Caesaris (games in honor of Caesar's victories).
In order to intimidate the opposition and provide themselves with funds, the triumvirs subjected three hundred senators and two thousand people from the equestrian class to proscriptions. Antony and Octavian then marched into Macedonia to defeat Marcus Junius Brutus and Gaius Cassius (Caesar's assassins). After the victory at Philippi (42), Antony took control of the eastern provinces, and Octavian returned to Italy, where, after carrying out ruthless confiscations, he provided the veterans with land plots. In 41, he was forced to wage war in Perusia (Perugia), suppressing a rebellion raised by Antony's brother Lucius Antony, who was supported by Fulvia, Antony's wife. Antony was sensitive to Octavian's actions, but in 40 in Brundisium (Brindisi) a reconciliation was reached between them, according to which all eastern provinces went to Antony, and all western provinces went to Octavian, with the exception of Africa, which remained with Lepidus. To strengthen the alliance, Antony married Octavia, Octavian's sister (by that time Fulvia had died). The following year, at Misenum, near the Bay of Naples, a pact was signed with Sextus Pompey, in which the triumvirs recognized his authority over Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica. Anthony then returned to the East. Sextus soon denounced the Misenian Pact, and tensions arose again between Octavian and Antony. However, thanks to the efforts made by Octavian, reconciliation was again achieved in 37 in Tarentum (Taranto).
The triumvirate, whose legal term of power had expired, was extended for another five years, and the triumvirs agreed to act together against Sextus Pompey. In 36, Octavian and Lepidus organized a landing in Sicily; although Octavian himself suffered a severe defeat, his faithful associate and best military leader Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa saved the situation, and Sextus was defeated. Lepidus, having quarreled with his ally after the victory, was abandoned by his troops and deposed. Octavian, having since 38 the title of "imperator", originally denoting a judicial office in charge of military command, and calling himself imperator Caesar divi filius (Emperor Caesar, son of God), returned to Rome to celebrate an ovation, among other honors received the sacred title of plebeian tribune.
Now Octavian had power over the entire West, and Antony over the entire East, and it became clear that a clash between the two supreme rulers was inevitable. Caesar's heir gained authority and popularity thanks to his victory over Sextus, which ensured the safety of grain supply routes to Rome. Over the next few years, he and his associates, especially Agrippa, were fruitfully engaged in public affairs. In addition, Octavian, having gathered his troops, achieved even greater glory during the conquest of Illyria (Dalmatia) in 35-33. Meanwhile, Antony was losing his influence due to unsuccessful Parthian campaigns and became alien to the Roman people, becoming intimate with Cleopatra. Thus, Octavian had the opportunity to rise as the head of Italy and Rome, opposing the eastern queen and her degenerate lover.
The crisis came at the end of the second five-year term of the triumvirate, when Octavian demanded that Antony resign his powers. Consuls and more than three hundred senators left Italy and joined Antony, but Octavian forced the Vestal Virgins to annul Antony's will and promulgate it from the podium of the Senate. It was a very rash document that elevated Cleopatra and all her children born from Anthony, and aroused public opinion against him. Caesar's heir had the opportunity to obtain an oath of personal allegiance from the entire people of Italy, who demanded that he become a leader in the coming war. All the western provinces took his side. War was declared specifically on Cleopatra, and in 31 Octavian, having established his state position by accepting the consulate (during 32 he essentially remained a private civilian), took military command. At the Battle of Actium on September 2, 31, he decisively defeated the combined armies of Antony and Cleopatra, who fled to Egypt. On August 1, 30, he entered Alexandria; Antony and Cleopatra committed suicide. Egypt was annexed and enormous treasures were seized. The following year, Gaius Octavius returned to Rome, where he celebrated a magnificent triple triumph: the conquest of Illyria, the victory at Actium and the capture of Egypt.
Legislation of Augustus.
Thus, Octavian's power in the empire became undeniable, but its legality remained in question. Starting from the age of 31, he began to be elected annually to the consulate, but at the same time he exceeded all legal powers, demanding unlimited supreme power for himself in accordance with the people's oath of 32 years. Now, after the end of the war, the further strengthening of monarchical power could alienate the upper and middle strata of the Italian population, who were in a republican spirit, from him. In 28, Octavian began to repeal the illegal acts of the triumvirate and, together with his friend, consul Agrippa, carried out a census and a harsh purge of the Senate, which had grown too large and included many undesirable persons. Then, on January 13, 27, he solemnly resigned his emergency powers and reserved one of the two annual consulates. In gratitude, on January 16, 27, the Senate awarded him the honorary name Augustus. He urged Caesar's heir not to abandon the republic, and Octavian agreed to take upon himself the task of pacifying the provinces that could not be governed. To this end, he was appointed for ten years the ruler of very large provinces, including Spain (except its southern region, Baetica), Gaul, Syria and Egypt, and was also given the power to declare wars and conclude treaties. With the exception of these powers, which had precedents in the era of the late Republic, when such emergency powers were given by vote in the Senate to Pompey and Caesar, the government of the republic was restored. Free elections were resumed; the magistrates, under the direction of the senate, performed their usual functions; the proconsuls, who received power over the provinces for a period of one year, were no longer subordinate to Augustus. On coins Octavian was designated as libertatis populi Romani vindex (defender of the freedom of the Roman people). At the same time, he retained control over all the legions, with the exception of a few - those commanded by the proconsuls of Illyria, Macedonia and Africa.
Augustus spent the next three years (27-25 BC) in his western provinces, where he finally managed to subjugate the restless tribes of Northwestern Spain, Asturias and Cantabria. Moreover, every year Octavian nominated himself for the consulate and, naturally, was elected to this position. Such a long stay as consul was not provided for by the regulations of 27 and therefore began to cause growing discontent. On the one hand, the nobility had their own complaints due to the fact that the chances of obtaining a consulate had dropped by half. On the other hand, everyone realized that such a long stay of one person in the highest government position was contrary to the law and spirit of the republic. Discontent reached its climax in 23, when Aulus Terentius Varus Murena, second consul and hitherto loyal ally of Augustus, plotted to assassinate him. Octavian realized that if he wanted to avoid the fate of Julius Caesar, he would have to make more serious concessions, and from July 1, 23 BC. Augustus refused the consulate, after which, with the exception of two years (5 and 2 BC), he never sought it again. Gaius Octavius remained proconsul of his provinces (his rule in them did not cease until 17), however, wanting to show that his power would not last longer than necessary, Augustus abandoned the provinces in which peace had already been established - Narbonne Gaul (Southern Gaul) and Cyprus. As compensation, Octavian received some privileges. It was established that, unlike other proconsuls, he does not lose imperium, i.e. command position in the troops, upon returning to Rome and receives majus imperium, or supreme powers in relation to other proconsuls, i.e. if necessary, has the right to disregard their decisions. Augustus also received the power to convene the Senate and determine its activities. Finally, he received the lifelong power of plebeian tribune. The meaning of this power is not entirely clear. She gave Octavian certain rights; introduce legislative acts and veto orders of the Senate and officials, but Augustus used this right in rare cases, although it could be useful in any dangerous situations. It was rather a propaganda technique through which Octavian gained the support of the common people, who considered the tribunes to be defenders and champions of their rights.
In 22, Augustus went on a long trip to the eastern provinces and did not return to Rome until 19. If the republican opposition was satisfied with the new state of affairs, the people were dissatisfied with it and proposed that Octavian establish a dictatorship, accept an annual consulate with an indefinite extension, as well as a number of other extraordinary positions. In 22 and 20 the people insisted on his election as consul, but Augustus refused to accept this position. It seemed that the masses were truly frightened by the possibility that Octavian would finally retire to the provinces and abandon them to the mercy of the Senate. Concerned about the threat of revolts, which the authorities were not able to suppress, the Senate demanded that Augustus intervene in the situation and celebrate his return at the altar of Fortuna Redux (the altar of the goddess Fortuna, who patronizes those who return to their homeland). Now the Republicans were ready to make concessions. According to the historian Dio Cassius, the title "imperium" was given to Augustus for life. The reliability of this fact is doubtful, but what is certain is that from then on Octavian had executive powers in the territory of Rome and Italy at the consul level. The legality of his position was now finally approved and was not subject to any further changes. Augustus was unanimously elected as pontifex maximus in 12, after the death of Lepidus, who had previously held the position. And in 2 BC. he was hailed as pater patriae (father of the fatherland), but all these titles were only manifestations of honor. He was reinstated as provincial governor at intervals of five and ten years until his death in 14 AD.
Much debate arose over whether Augustus really intended to restore the republican system or whether he wanted to create a system of dual power, a diarchy in which he would divide the administration of the empire between himself and the Senate, or whether Gaius Octavius simply maintained the appearance of a republic, indulging the sentiments of the upper class. Some of his statements indicate that at first he may have hoped to restore order in the empire, and then retire, handing over the reins of government to the Senate. However, such hopes, if he had ever cherished them, soon faded. Augustus certainly made efforts to intensify the activities of the magistrates and the senate in governing the country and promoting reforms of the republican administrative system. For example, he transferred some functions that the aediles had previously neglected to the newly created colleges of persons authorized by the Senate, such as curators aquarium (responsible for water supply). In relation to the aediles, responsible for the activities of fire brigades and the supply of grain to Rome, this was the last of the innovations that streamlined their functions, which Augustus personally carried out. At the same time, he tried to interfere as little as possible in lawmaking. Octavian kept the electoral system free, reserving the right to recommend to the people the election of certain candidates whom he favored. However, at the end of his life, this commendatio turned into a strict right to nominate a limited number of candidates for election without competition. Augustus made great efforts to get the Senate to revise the rotational system of membership, and although on two occasions (in 18 and 11 BC) he had to act in a strong-willed manner, in 4 AD. he finally succeeded in achieving his original goal. At the same time, he held real power firmly in his hands and under no circumstances weakened his personal control over the army.
After 19, Augustus had legal prerogatives that allowed him to dictate his will in cases of almost any unforeseen circumstances. Outside his province, he preferred to use his power minimally and influence through his personal moral authority (auctoritas). Thus, although Octavian introduced some laws as a plebeian tribune, the main lawmaking in the late period of his reign was carried out by the consuls who were under his influence. The consuls also ensured the activities of the Senate, although it was already determined in a narrow circle of people with Augustus at its head. Bearing the title of majus imperium, he, however, had much greater capabilities than just directing the actions of the consuls. Of all his official titles, Octavian ignored imperium and preferred tribuncia potestas. He also preferred to be known as princeps, the senior civil servant of the republic.
Perhaps the most important evidence that Augustus never seriously considered restoring the republic comes from the fact that he was constantly preoccupied with a potential successor. Octavian was criticized for his desire to find one among his family members, but serious political considerations also served as the basis for this choice, in addition to personal feelings. The legions were loyal to the Caesar family, as demonstrated early in Augustus' career, and the stability of the regime depended largely on their loyalty. Fate did not give Octavian sons. His marriage to Scribonia, in 40 BC, brought only a daughter, Julia, born in 39 BC. On her birthday, divorcing Scribonia, Augustus in 38 married Livia Drusilla, to with whom he fell passionately in love and whose husband, Tiberius Claudius Nero, forced him to divorce her. The marriage turned out to be happy and long (Livia survived Augustus), but childless, Octavian had only one close male relative - Marcus Claudius Marcellus, the son of his sister Octavia. Livia had her own children from her first marriage, the future emperor Tiberius and Nero Claudius Drusus, who were settled in the house of Augustus.
The emperor's first choice fell on Marcellus. He married him to Julia and gave him a corresponding promotion. This apparently led to friction with his loyal colleague Agrippa, who, pacified, left the stage in 23 and became a colleague of Augustus in the ranks of proconsuls, receiving the East under his control. Marcellus died the following year, and Julia promptly married Agrippa. This marriage produced two sons, Gaius Caesar (b. 20), whom Augustus declared as his adopted son, and Lucius Caesar (b. 17). In 18, Agrippa's proconsular powers, together with those of Augustus, were extended for another five years, and for the same period he shared his power as tribune with Augustus.
Augustus transferred the role of Agrippa to Livia's eldest son Tiberius, to whom he married Julia and forced Tiberius to divorce his beloved wife. In 6 BC. Tiberius received the powers of tribune for five years, but almost immediately retired to Rhodes and refused all participation in the government. The reason for the quarrel became obvious the following year, when Agrippa's son, Gaius Caesar, fifteen years old, was elected consul with a five-year delay in taking office and declared members of the equestrian order princeps juventutis (head of the younger generation); in 2 BC Lucius Caesar was awarded the same honors.
Tiberius, who had been serving full-time in Pannonia and Germany as Augustus's legate, had no intention of playing a secondary role under the two youths. Octavian was consistent in his policy, appointing in 1 BC. Guy Caesar to a proconsular position, entrusting him with solving the problems of Parthia and Armenia. However, he again had to be disappointed in his hopes. Lucius died in 2 AD, and Gaius in 4 AD. Augustus had to turn again to Tiberius, whom he declared to be his adopted son and introduced him to joint government for ten years with the powers of proconsul and tribune. These powers were renewed and extended in 14 AD. shortly before the death of Augustus.
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2. Scribonia (40 BC - 39 BC)
3. Livia Drusilla (38 BC - 14)
Gaius Julius Caesar Octavian Augustus(lat. Gaius Iulius Caesar Octavianus , at birth - Guy Octavius Furin, Gaius Octavius Thurinus; September 23, 63 BC e. , Rome - August 19, 14, Nola) - Roman politician, founder of the Principate (with the name Imperator Caesar Augustus, from January 16, 27 BC), Pontifex Maximus since 12 AD. e. , Father of the Fatherland from 2 BC. e. . Caesar's great-nephew, adopted by him in his will.
Full title at time of death:
Imperator Caesar Divi filius Augustus, Pontifex Maximus, Consul XIII, Imperator XXI, Tribuniciae potestatis XXXVII, Pater Patriae(Emperor, son of the Divine Caesar, Augustus, Pontifex Maximus, Consul 13 times, Emperor 21 times, invested with the power of tribune of the people 37 times, Father of the Fatherland)
Origin
Acceptance of Caesar's inheritance
Soon Octavian received a letter from his mother about the murder of Caesar. His mother and stepfather, Lucius Marcius Philippus, advised him not to appear in Rome. Having secretly moved to Italy, Octavian collected information about the events that took place in the capital. It turned out that the Senate did not support the murderers, refusing to declare Caesar a tyrant and throw his body into the Tiber. After opening the will, it turned out that Caesar adopted Octavian, leaving him most of his property. Having learned about this, after much hesitation and against the advice of his mother and stepfather, Octavian decided to accept the inheritance. He came to Rome, declaring that he would do everything to fulfill Caesar’s posthumous will and take revenge on his murderers.
First encounter with Antony
However, power had already been seized by another Caesarian, Mark Antony, who received money from Caesar's wife Calpurnia and was supported by troops. Appearing in 44 BC. e. to Antony, Octavian demanded that the money be returned to himself as the rightful heir. Anthony mockingly replied that they had to be spent on bribes to senators so that they would support the Caesarians. Then Octavian began to sell his property, and then his mother and stepfather, and from the proceeds to distribute the 300 sesterces promised by Caesar to every Roman citizen. At the same time, Octavian told everyone that he was forced to go bankrupt and accused Antony of allowing Caesar’s killers, who had taken control of the rich provinces and troops, to escape. The popularity of Octavian, who managed to gain the trust of Cicero, began to grow. Cicero considered Octavian to be his obedient instrument and for some time began to represent his interests in the Senate. Having become a master of internal political struggle, Octavian helped Antony pass a law according to which the latter came into control of Gaul, which frightened the senators. Because of this, Octavian sent his people to Antony’s legions, promising everyone who came over to his side a large reward. When part of the army passed to Octavian, he announced that he was providing it to the Senate to fight Antony. When Antony opposed Decimus Brutus, Octavian secured a Senate decision to support Brutus. Under pressure from the Caesarians from Octavian's camp and thanks to the energetic calls of Cicero, the Senate, violating the usual procedure for passing magistrates, granted Octavian military power and propraetorship. When Antony was declared an enemy of the fatherland, Octavian, along with both consuls and his legions, went to the aid of Brutus. In the decisive battle of Mutina, Octavian did not pursue the defeated Anthony, although both consuls died in battle. There were rumors that they were killed by people sent by Octavian. After the victory, Octavian returned to Rome and demanded a triumph.
Collapse of the Second Triumvirate
Augustus suffered his greatest failure in 9 AD. BC, when three Roman legions under the command of Publius Quintilius Varus were defeated in the Teutoburg Forest as a result of a surprise attack by the Germans led by Arminius. A powerful uprising in Pannonia (6-9 AD) and the defeat of the Romans in the Teutoburg Forest forced Augustus to abandon further campaigns.
Where the Romans did not establish new provinces, their influence was guaranteed by the allied states (Thrace, Armenia, Cappadocia, Commagene, etc.).
Some experts are inclined to believe that, under the guise of peacekeeping slogans, Augustus actually undertook a grandiose and well-thought-out program for the complete conquest of the Oecumene. The size and organization of the reformed Roman army made it possible to mobilize significant forces in a short time to conduct offensive operations. After the conquest of Spain, the troops, who had gained valuable experience in fighting in mountainous terrain, were transferred to the Northern Alps, where, under the pretext of the need to prevent barbarian raids on Italy, the newly formed provinces of Noricum and Raetia joined the Roman Empire. This brought the Romans to the German border from the south and made it possible to launch a concentrated attack in a converging direction towards the center of its territory. In the east, the Romans established their dominance in the Bosporan kingdom (Crimea) and, taking advantage of the weakening of Parthia due to dynastic strife, they concluded a new treaty with it on more favorable terms for themselves: the Parthians returned the banners and prisoners captured during the defeat of Crassus (this treaty was Augustus himself, especially no less, apparently, he considered it a palliative solution).
Not the least role in Augustus’s military activity was played by the need for high-profile military successes that could strengthen his position in the domestic arena. Thus, during his reign, the temple of Janus was closed three times and it was proclaimed that “all nations now respectfully listen to Roman law” - it was understood that this state of affairs was achieved not least by the force of arms, directed by the hand of the princeps. The same motives prompted him to announce the victorious end of the campaign in Britain (it is firmly known that Augustus did not fight in Britain) and to demonstrate the trophies allegedly taken there (captured in fact by Gaius Julius Caesar).
Domestic policy
Being an extremely cautious politician and an excellent diplomat, Augustus understood that the Romans were tired of civil wars; therefore, all events were carried out by him under the slogan of restoring the old order and peace (Pax Romana).
His politics are characterized by maneuvering between different social groups. While maintaining the prestige of the Senate, he at the same time updated its composition and reduced its political role. Higher officials began to be recruited from the equestrian class, the number of which increased due to the Italian municipal nobility and commanders who had gained favor from the soldiers.
Augustus contrasted the magistracy with the bureaucratic apparatus, which had lost its real significance. In relation to the plebs, Augustus adhered to the policy of “bread and circuses”. The backbone of imperial power was the army, which underwent large-scale reform. The number of legions (mostly understaffed) was significantly reduced (after the reform, according to various historians, they began to number from 24 to 27; up to 3 more legions may have had to be recruited to suppress the Pannonian uprising, although in general measures for military recruitment were extremely unpopular). The service life of an ordinary legionnaire was limited to 16 years, a praetorian - 12 (later increased to 20 and 16 years, respectively), retired soldiers were provided with land plots (later replaced by a lump sum of money). To support the army, an imperial treasury (fiscus) was established, which received revenues from the five percent sales tax levied in Italy and the inheritance tax.
A number of laws passed under Augustus were aimed at strengthening the foundations of slavery. To solve demographic problems, the Pappius-Poppaeus law on marriage was adopted, and to restore good morals - on luxury. The policy pursued by Augustus in the provinces contributed to the creation of a layer of the population interested in maintaining Roman rule.
Family life
In his family life, however, Octavian Augustus could not boast of happiness: the dissolute lifestyle of his daughter Julia (by Scribonia) caused him a lot of grief. In Libya, Augustus found a wife quite worthy of himself, but she is accused of not stopping at evil means in order to ensure the right of succession to Augustus for her eldest son.
Augustus himself had no sons, and death deprived him of not only his nephew Marcellus and his grandchildren Gaius and Lucius (it was customary in ancient times to see the hand of Livia in their deaths), but even his beloved stepson Drusus, who died in 9 BC. e. in Germany. Only his older brother remained, Tiberius Claudius Nero - the son of Livia from her first marriage.
Since the world recently celebrated the 2004 anniversary of the death of Octavian Augustus, we have selected ten of the most interesting facts about the first emperor of the Roman Empire.
Augustus, also known as Gaius Octavius, died August 19, 14. The nephew and adopted son (Gaius Iulius Caesar) is known for the fact that it was he who managed to make the mighty Roman Empire out of the weak Roman Republic, which he led for 40 years. But in addition to his stormy political activities, Octavian also boasted an extremely interesting personal life: he had two unsuccessful marriages, a troubled daughter and a third wife suspected of murder.
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We have selected ten, in our opinion, the most interesting and noteworthy facts about the life of the creator of the Roman Empire, who to this day is considered one of the most important political figures in history.
- His name wasn't actually August.. Many people do not like the names that their parents give them at birth, but not everyone decides to change this name. But Guy Octavian turned out to be a rather brave man who believed that his name did not sound courageous enough. That is why he changed it to “August” (translated as “exalted by the gods”).
- Rival of Mark Antony. Despite the fact that Antony (Marcus Antonius) was married to Octavian's sister and was Augustus' son-in-law, there was always rivalry in the relationship between the two politicians. And it’s not just the romance between Mark and Cleopatra. Antony often posed a serious threat to Augustus in the political arena. Augustus' victory at the Battle of Mutina added fuel to the fire, after which Antony committed suicide.
- Burning handsome man. According to the records of the Roman historian Suetonius, Augustus was “extraordinarily handsome and graceful both in his youth and in his old age.” He had "light and bright eyes" and his hair was "slightly curled." The bad news is that the emperor's hair and skin often showed signs of lichen, he suffered from a liver abscess, and also walked with a slight limp. Some information about the politician also says that there were moles scattered all over his body, which in number, shape and location resembled the constellation Ursa Major.
- Modern family? Emperor Augustus distinguished himself by marrying his only daughter to his best friend, who was 25 years older than the bride. General Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa, who often fought on Octavian's side, was married to Julia. Subsequently, the girl was married again at the insistence of her father to Tiberius, the future emperor.
- Slutty daughter. Augustus's daughter Julia (Ivlia Caesaris Filia) was distinguished by a very quarrelsome and rebellious character, as well as excessive love. So, the girl had numerous affairs with the brightest representatives of the Roman Empire, including the poet Ovid, as well as with the son of Mark Antony, Antillus. Finally tired of Julia’s dissolute lifestyle, Augustus, who was an ardent supporter of a quiet family hearth, exiled his daughter to the island of Pandateria (modern Ventotene), where he banned wine and the presence of men.
- Influential uncle. Augustus managed to climb to such heights of political power solely thanks to Gaius Julius Caesar, who adopted him. It was after the brutal murder of Caesar by a group of separatists that the relationship between Mark Antony and Augustus deteriorated.
- Eternal Groom. Octavian Augustus loved getting married so much that he did it regularly. He had three marriages in total, the first of which was his union with Clodia Pulchra, the adopted daughter of Mark Antony. After this, he bestowed his attention on Scribonia Libonis, who subsequently bore him a daughter. On the day of the birth, the emperor asked his wife for a divorce so that he could marry the love of his life, Livia Drusilla.
- Continuation of the dynasty. Having no direct heirs, Augustus decided to adopt Tiberius (Tiberius Julius Caesar Augustus), the eldest son of his third wife Livia from a previous marriage. After Octavian's death, the reins of power passed to his successor, who was emperor from 14 to 37 AD.
- Killed by his own wife? Octavian died on August 19, 14 in Nola (Campania region), the same place where his father died. According to some records of that time, the Romans seriously believed that the emperor was killed by his wife Livia by putting poison in his food. His last the words, as you know, were: “And if we played beautifully, reward us with an ovation and send us off with joy.” But before his death, he also said: “I received Rome wooden, but left it marble.”
- His legacy? Take a look at the calendar. Have you ever wondered why the month of August is called this way and not otherwise? The Roman Senate decided to rename the month from "Sextilia" to "August" after Octavian defeated Mark Antony and became emperor. The number of days in this month was increased by one, since the ruler of the Roman Empire wanted the month named after him to have the same number of days as in July, which received such a name in honor of the great Julius Caesar.
Participation in wars:
Civil War.
Participation in battles:
Battle of Mutin. Battle of Philippi. Battle of Actium
(Gaius Iulius Caesar Augustus) Princeps of the Senate (27 BC - 14 AD), from 12 BC. Pontifex Maximus, Father of the Fatherland from 2 BC, multiple consul, tribune and censor
In life Caesar Octavius, declared an adult in 48 BC. e., was already included in the college of pontiffs, accompanied Caesar to Spain in 45 BC. e. and was sent by him to Apollonia to wait here for the arrival of Caesar and go with him to Parthian campaign. Caesar looked to Octavius as his successor, as he was well aware of.
The death of Caesar found Octavius in Apollonia. Upon receiving this news, he immediately went to Rome and openly acted not only as the civil heir and son of Caesar, who received his name and property in the will, but also as his political heir, whose rights were allegedly usurped by the consul of that city Mark Antony, who seized Caesar's papers and capital after Caesar's death.
Conflict between Octavius and Antony became inevitable. However, the forces of the opponents were not equal. If Octavius had filial right on his side, then Antony, as Caesar’s closest collaborator in the last years of his life, had enormous political influence and enjoyed the support of Caesar’s troops. In addition, Anthony was consul and in the coming year was to receive command in Macedonia, where the largest army was concentrated. Octavius had barely just begun his political career.
The inevitability of a conflict with Antony should have forced Octavius to join those real forces that existed in Rome besides and next to the Senate. Seeking support against Antony, he turned to Cicero, and he, trying to weaken the Caesarians, passed through the Senate a resolution recognizing Gaius Octavius as the adopted son and legal heir of Caesar. From now on Guy Octavius became known as Gaius Julius Caesar Octavian. Fulfilling the will of Caesar, Octavian distributed the money bequeathed to them by Caesar to the poorest citizens of Rome, and thereby gained wide popularity among them.
Declared by the Senate to be an enemy of the republic, Antony retired to Cisalpine Gaul and began to prepare for war with the patricians.
At this point, Octavian offered his support to Cicero. He promised to use his authority to recruit Caesarian soldiers into the army of the Senate, provided that he himself was elected praetor. This condition was accepted by the Senate, and nineteen-year-old Octavian was declared praetor. After this, he helped the Senate consuls recruit troops from Caesar's veterans.
The Republican army, led by the consul and the new praetor, moved against Antony's troops. In 43 BC. e. happened battle of Mutina, in which Antony's army was defeated, but both consuls of the Senate army died. The army was led by Gaius Caesar Octavian.
However, the Senate refused his request to be appointed consul and began to support the murderers of Caesar Brutus and Cassia. Upon learning of the Senate decision, Octavian moved troops against him and, having defeated him, occupied Rome.
In the autumn of the same year Octavian, Anthony and Lepidus met near Bononia and agreed among themselves on an alliance and joint struggle with the supporters of the republic. Soon after this, the popular assembly, surrounded by Octavian's soldiers, passed a law transferring power to three Caesarian leaders (Octavian, Lepidus and Antony) as "triumvirs for the establishment of a republic." The triumvirs announced the cancellation of the amnesty for the murderers of Caesar and, as revenge for his murder, began proscriptions, during which about three hundred senators (including Cicero) and two thousand horsemen died. The massacre of the nobility was carried out by the triumvirs, primarily to replenish their military treasury, since they had a war ahead of them with supporters of the republic.
The main threat to the triumvirs at the beginning of 42 BC. e. was represented by an army assembled in the eastern provinces by Brutus and Cassius. Having united their forces in Northern Greece, the Republicans intended to cross to Italy, but near the town of Philippi they were met by an army of triumvirs under the command of Anthony and Octavian and were defeated. Cassius and Brutus died.
The defeat of the Republicans allowed the triumvirs to carry out a new division of the provinces. Antony received the Eastern Mediterranean, Lepidus - Africa, Octavian- Gaul, Illaria and Spain. Despite the fact that Italy was under the general control of the triumvirs, due to the absence of Antony and Lepidus, it soon came under the rule of Octavian.
In an effort to bring about the fall of Octavian, Mark Antony's brother Lucius and Marcus's wife Fulvia decided to take advantage of the dissatisfaction of the population of Rome with Octavian's policies, primarily with the introduction of a new ten percent tax on all property, as well as the constant shortage of food caused by the naval blockade of Italy by the naval fleet of Sextus Pompey, and tried to raise a rebellion against Octavian. They demanded the destruction of the triumvirate and the restoration of the republican constitution.
For a short time, Antony's supporters managed to capture Rome, but soon they had to retreat to Etruria and settle in the heavily fortified city of Perusia (Perugia), where in 41-40. BC e. were besieged by the troops of Octavian, who forced them to surrender.
Not wanting to completely break with Anthony, who was approaching the shores of southern Italy with his fleet, Octavian released Lucius and Anthony, Fulvia, but brutally dealt with their supporters. Soon Antony landed in Brundisium, and his vanguard began military operations against Octavian's troops.
However, supporters of the triumvirs did not allow a new civil war. Thanks to their mediation, Octavian and Antony concluded an agreement on the division of the provinces and the provision of mutual support. Octavian promised to help Antony in the war with the Parthians, and Antony promised to transfer his fleet to Octavian to fight Sextus Pompey. This agreement was sealed by a marriage between the widowed Antony and Octavian's sister Octavia.
Under pressure from public opinion in Italy, which suffered both from a lack of food due to the blockade of the coast by the fleet of Sextus Pompey, and due to the mass flight of slaves to Sicily, Octavian and Antony were forced to come to an agreement with Pompey. After lengthy negotiations in the summer of 39 BC. e. At the Misensky Cape, a meeting of the triumvirs with Sextus Pompey took place. He was promised to pay monetary compensation for the confiscated property of his late father, and was also given control over Sicily, Sardinia and the Peloponnese. In its turn Sextus Pompey promised to end the naval blockade of Italy, not to support sea robbers and not to accept runaway slaves into his service. An amnesty was declared for those proscribed, except for those who participated in the assassination of Caesar.
While Antony was in Parthia, Octavian, having built a large navy, attacked Sextus Pompey. Having defeated his squadron in two naval battles, Octavian, together with Lepidus, landed in Sicily. The army of Sextus Pompey capitulated, and he himself fled to Asia Minor, where he was killed.
After the defeat of the troops of Sextus Pompey, Octavian ordered the return of all fugitive slaves who were on the island of Sicily to their former owners, and those whose owners were not found were executed.
Thanks to the actions of Octavian's navy, the pirates were destroyed and food was delivered to Rome, which contributed to a fall in prices and an end to famine in Rome. All this raised Octavian's authority among the local population. In 36 BC. e., after returning from the campaign against Sextus Pompey, Octavian was awarded the title of tribune of the people in the comitia. In its turn Octavian, seeking to improve relations with the Roman population, abolished forced taxes and stopped the confiscation of land property. When one of the triumvirs, Aemilius Lepidus, tried to conduct agitation among Octavian’s soldiers, inviting them to his service, Octavian followed his example and himself made a similar proposal to Lepidus’s soldiers. Octavian's authority turned out to be so great that they proclaimed him their commander. Lepidus had to ask for mercy from Octavian, who sent him to live out his days in one of the estates.
Soon after the removal of Lepidus from power, Octavian's relations with Antony worsened, who married the Egyptian queen Cleopatra and transferred to her part of the eastern Roman provinces. Anthony began minting his own coins depicting himself and Cleopatra.
In 32 BC. e., surrounding the Senate with his soldiers, Octavian demanded that the senators make a decision against Antony. At the same time, he allowed Anthony's supporters to leave Rome. Both consuls and about three hundred senators took advantage of this permission. After this, the Senate declared war on Cleopatra for her appropriation of Roman possessions, and since Anthony spoke in her defense, he himself was declared an “enemy of the Republic.”
Having learned about the declaration of war on him, Anthony, together with Cleopatra, moved with the army and fleet to the shores of Greece, from where he hoped to cross to Italy. But Octavian and his closest friend Mark Agrippa, ahead of them, they met Antony's fleet and army off the coast of Epirus - near the Amtrakian Gulf. This increased disagreement in Antony’s camp, and his soldiers began to run over to Octavian’s camp.
September 2, 31 BC. A naval battle took place at Cape Actium, during which Cleopatra's fleet was defeated and left the battle. Antony's land army some time later surrendered to Octavian, whose troops soon occupied Greece and the western regions of Asia Minor.
In winter 31/30 BC. e. Octavian was forced to return to Italy to calm the unrest that began in the camp of the legionnaires. He gave honorable retirement to many of them, giving them land plots purchased at state expense.
That same spring, his army occupied Syria without resistance and, having passed through Palestine, approached the borders of Egypt. Antony and Cleopatra committed suicide. Egypt was conquered by Roman troops and turned into a province declared the personal possession of Octavian.
In 29 BC. e., returning to Rome, Octavian celebrated a luxurious triumph. Having assumed the rank of triumvir, Octavian received the title of emperor from the Senate and the comitia. Previously, he had already received the lifelong title of tribune of the people.
But Octavian did not yet consider his position strong enough and therefore, as a censor, he carried out a purge of the Senate, expelling from it Antony’s supporters and other persons hostile to him.
At the end of 28 BC. e. Octavian announced that he was seriously ill, and after his “recovery” he convened a meeting of the Senate on the Ides of January (January 13, 27 BC). There he announced a complete cessation of the civil war and, citing his poor health, asked the Senate to relieve him of his duties as ruler. The Senate asked Octavian “not to leave the Republic,” but he was adamant and announced his absolute desire to retire from all state affairs. Then the Senate “ordered” Octavian to remain at the head of the administration of the Roman Republic, and he was forced to obey.
Despite the preservation of external forms of government of the Roman Republic, all threads of government were now completely controlled by Octavian, who received the honorary name Augusta, previously used only as an appeal to deities.
The Senate declared Octavian Augustus its trailer. He was placed first on the list of senators and was the first to express his opinion when discussing issues, determining the opinion of the majority. Three times August acted as a censor and revised the lists of senators.
Possessing the rights of a people's tribune, Augustus could veto the decision of any of the magistrates, the Senate, and even the comitia. Later, Augustus also received the title of Great Pontiff, that is, the High Priest of Rome.
August was declared proconsul for life, that is, commander-in-chief of all Roman armed forces. He not only commanded legions and supervised the activities of provincial governors, but received the right to produce recruitment for replenishing troops, negotiate outside the empire, declare war and make peace. He also had funds and the state treasury, which gave him the opportunity to pay soldiers salaries and awards, as well as spend funds on other needs.
Of the seventy-five legions at his disposal in 30 BC. e., Augustus left only twenty-eight. Well-equipped, technically equipped to meet all the requirements of the military art of that time, the legions were stationed in groups in the most militarily and economically important provinces (Gaul, Illyria, Macedonia, Syria, Egypt).
The commanders of the legions - legates and senior commanders - military tribunes were appointed directly by the emperor. The soldiers' service lasted twenty years.
During their service, soldiers received an annual salary, and upon their retirement, a special gift (vocative) and an allotment of land. Older warriors and retired veterans formed separate settlements in various parts of the Roman Empire and formed a stronghold of Roman rule, often from which local magistrates were chosen.
In addition to the legions, in some large cities of the Roman provinces there were so-called numbered cohorts that guarded Roman administrators, local temples, prisons, and at night the gates and streets of the city.
Even in the era of the Republic, each Roman army had a cohort that guarded the commander and his headquarters - the praetorian cohort. Augustus, for personal protection and maintaining his dominance in Italy, created nine cohorts of a thousand people each (three hundred horsemen and seven hundred foot soldiers). Three praetorian cohorts were stationed in Rome itself, and the remaining six in various cities of Italy. Praetorian warriors were recruited only from natives of Italy; they received three times more salary than ordinary legionnaires. Their service life was determined to be sixteen years. At the head of the imperial corps, which was the imperial guard, were two praetorian prefects, who later turned into the emperor's closest confidants.
To protect sea routes in the Mediterranean Sea, several permanent squadrons of warships were created. Separate flotillas guarded peace on the shores of Gaul and on the Pontus Euxine (Black Sea).
The total number of armed forces of the Roman Empire under Augustus reached three hundred thousand people.
The standing Roman army created August, existed for about four centuries. It was a regular army, a solid support of the Roman Empire in its domestic and foreign policy. The next years after Battle of Cape Actium Augustus devoted himself to organizing the internal structure of the Roman state. In foreign policy he was unusually cautious and restrained.
He took military action only where it was absolutely necessary, for example, in Spain, Egypt, Arabia.
The caution of Augustus's foreign policy was especially clearly reflected on the eastern border, where he deliberately did not want to become a successor to the ideas of Caesar and Anthony, pursued an absolutely peaceful policy and with difficulty achieved, thanks to his personal appearance in Syria and large military preparations, the return of those captured by the Parthians from Crassus and Anthony of the Banner.
The conductor of Emperor Augustus' active policy in the east was Agrippa's eldest son, Augustus's favorite grandson, and his presumptive heir Gaius Caesar. The end of Augustus' expansion in Armenia and Parthia was marked by the death of Guy from a wound received during the siege of a small Armenian town.
Augustus's foreign policy in the west was much more active. Here, the main objects of his attention, after the settlement of Spain, were the borders of Gaul and Illyricum. The task of conquering Germany and expanding the borders of Illyricum was taken upon by the two sons of Augustus’s wife Livia - Tiberius and Drusus. The result of their campaigns was the creation of new Danube and Elbe borders and penetration into the depths of Germany and the Danube countries.
All the results of Tiberius’ activities in Germany were, however, swept away by the events of 6-9. n. e. The formation of the great kingdom of drug addicts, the rise of national consciousness of the Germans and Pannonians, who adopted military equipment and tactics from the Romans over the years of service in their auxiliary troops, caused a brutal war, first in Pannonia, and then in Germany. This war threatened, if not death, then the ruin of Italy. Only by inducing one of the leaders to betrayal and thereby splitting the movement, the Romans were able to suppress the uprising.
In 9 AD, the Germanic leader of the Cherusci Arminius, previously considered a supporter of Rome, deceived the Roman governor Pia Quintilia Vara and lured him with an army consisting of three legions into a swampy Teutoburg Forest, where the Roman troops stretched out on soggy forest roads were destroyed piece by piece by the Germans.
The news of the death of Varus and his legions caused panic in Rome. Augustus disbanded his detachment of bodyguards, recruited from the Germans, and all the Gauls were expelled from Rome. There was serious fear here of a German invasion of Gaul and a slave uprising. However, the scattered squads of the Germans, having expelled the Romans, dispersed to their villages without undertaking an invasion of Gaul.
The death of the legions in the Teutoburg Forest gave August understand that the business of conquest in northeastern Europe requires incredible costs, funds and people. He not only abandoned the Elbe border and the province of Germany, but switched to a purely defensive policy, bequeathing to his successor not to expand the borders of the state.