Engineering ammunition vs. Ammunition. Types of aircraft ammunition

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About explosives Explosion - this is a very rapid transformation process explosive

into a large amount of highly compressed and heated gases, which, expanding, produce mechanical work (destruction, movement, crushing, ejection). Explosive

- chemical compounds or mixtures of such compounds that, under the influence of certain external influences, are capable of rapid, self-developing chemical transformation into a large amount of gases.

Simply put, an explosion is akin to the combustion of ordinary flammable substances (coal, firewood), but differs from simple combustion in that this process occurs very quickly, in thousandths and ten-thousandths of a second. Hence, according to the speed of transformation, explosions are divided into two types - combustion and detonation.

During an explosive transformation such as combustion, the transfer of energy from one layer of a substance to another occurs through thermal conductivity. A combustion type explosion is characteristic of gunpowder. The process of gas formation occurs quite slowly. Due to this, when gunpowder explodes in a confined space (cartridge case, projectile), the bullet or projectile is ejected from the barrel, but the case or chamber of the weapon is not destroyed.

In an explosion of the detonation type, the process of energy transfer is determined by the passage of a shock wave through the explosive at supersonic speed (6-7 thousand meters per second). In this case, gases are formed very quickly, the pressure increases instantly to very high values. Simply put, gases do not have time to escape along the path of least resistance and, in an effort to expand, they destroy everything in their path. This type of explosion is typical for TNT, hexogen, ammonite, etc. substances.
In order for the explosion process to begin (it then develops spontaneously), an external influence is necessary; a certain amount of energy must be supplied to the explosive. External influences are divided into the following types:
1. Mechanical (impact, puncture, friction).
2.Thermal (spark, flame, heating)
3. Chemical (chemical reaction of interaction of any substance with explosives)

Different explosives react differently to external influences. Some of them explode under any influence, others have selective sensitivity. For example, black black powder reacts well to thermal influences, very poorly to mechanical influences, and practically does not react to chemical ones. TNT mainly reacts only to detonation. Capsule compositions (mercury fulminate) react to almost any external influence. There are explosives that explode without any visible external influence at all, but the practical use of such explosives is generally impossible.

Depending on the type of explosion and sensitivity to external influences, all explosives are divided into three main groups:
1. Initiating explosives.
2. High explosives.
3.Projectile explosives.

Initiating explosives. They are highly sensitive to external influences. Their remaining characteristics (see below) are usually low. But they have a valuable property - their explosion (detonation) has a detonation effect on high explosives and propellants, which are usually not sensitive to other types of external influences at all or have unsatisfactory sensitivity. Therefore, initiating substances are used only to initiate the explosion of high explosives or propellant explosives. To ensure the safety of using initiating explosives, they are packaged in protective devices (capsule, primer sleeve, detonator capsule, electric detonator, fuse). Typical representatives initiating explosives: mercury fulminate, lead azide, teneres (TNRS).

High explosives. This, in fact, is what they talk and write about. They are used to equip shells, mines, bombs, rockets, and landmines; They blow up bridges, cars, businessmen...
High explosives are divided into three groups according to their explosive characteristics:
***high power (representatives - hexogen, PETN, tetryl);
**normal power (representatives - TNT, melinite, plasticite);
*reduced power (representatives are ammonium nitrate and its mixtures).

Explosives of increased power are somewhat more sensitive to external influences and therefore they are more often used in a mixture with phlegmatizers (substances that reduce the sensitivity of explosives) or in a mixture with explosives of normal power to increase the power of the latter. Sometimes high-power explosives are used as intermediate detonators.

Throwing explosives. These are various gunpowders - black smoky, smokeless pyroxylin and nitroglycerin. These also include various pyrotechnic mixtures for fireworks, signal and lighting flares, lighting shells, mines, and aerial bombs

All explosives are characterized by a number of data, depending on the values ​​of which the issue of using this substance to solve certain problems is decided. The most significant of them are:
1. Sensitivity to external influences.
2. Energy (heat) of explosive transformation.
3. Detonation speed.
4. Brisance.
5. High explosiveness.
6. Chemical resistance.
7. Duration and conditions of working condition.
8.Normal state of aggregation.
9. Density.

The properties of explosives can be described quite fully using all nine characteristics. However, to understand in general what is usually called power or strength, we can limit ourselves to two characteristics: “Blasting” and “High Explosiveness”.

Brisance- this is the ability of an explosive to crush and destroy objects in contact with it (metal, rocks, etc.). The amount of brisance indicates how quickly gases are formed during an explosion. The higher the brisance of a particular explosive, the more suitable it is for loading shells, mines, and aerial bombs. During an explosion, such an explosive will better crush the shell of the projectile, give the fragments the greatest speed, and create a stronger shock wave. A characteristic directly related to brisance is the detonation speed, i.e. how quickly the explosion process spreads through the explosive substance. Brisance is measured in millimeters (mm). This is a conventional unit. There is no need to describe the method for measuring brisance.

High explosiveness- in other words, the performance of the explosive, the ability to destroy and throw out surrounding materials (soil, concrete, brick, etc.) from the explosion area. This characteristic is determined by the amount of gases formed during the explosion. The more gases are formed, the more work a given explosive can perform. High explosiveness is measured in cubic centimeters (cc). This is also a fairly arbitrary value.

From this it becomes quite clear that different explosives are suitable for different purposes. For example, for blasting in the ground (in a mine, when constructing pits, destroying ice jams, etc.), an explosive with the highest explosiveness is more suitable, and any explosiveness is suitable. On the contrary, for equipping shells, high explosiveness is primarily valuable and high explosiveness is not so important.

Below are these two characteristics of several types of explosives:

From this table it can be seen that ammonite is better suited for making a pit in the ground, and plastic for equipping projectiles.

However, this is a highly simplified and not entirely correct approach to understanding the power of explosives. I made this simplification in order to talk about the properties of explosives in an extremely simple way. In fact, all nine characteristics are closely related to each other, depend on each other, and a change in one of them entails a change in all the others.

There is a simpler, and most importantly real, way to compare the powers of different explosives. It's called "TNT equivalent". Its essence lies in the fact that the power of TNT is conventionally taken as a unit (in much the same way as the power of one horse was once taken as a unit of machine power). And all other explosives (including nuclear explosives) are compared with TNT. Simply put, how much TNT would have to be taken to produce the same explosive work as a given amount of this explosive. In order not to bore the reader with long calculations and boring formulas, I will say it simply: 100g. RDX gives the same result as 125 g. TNT, and 75 gr. TNT will be replaced by 100g. ammonite. It would be even simpler to say that high-power explosives are 25 percent stronger than TNT, and low-power explosives are 20-30% weaker than TNT.

Explosives

Ammonium nitrate explosives

Ammonium nitrate explosives include large group explosives created on the basis of ammonium nitrate. All of them are low-power high explosives. That is, if compared with TNT, it counts. that they are all 25 percent weaker than TNT. However, this is not entirely true. In terms of brisance, ammonium nitrate explosives are usually not much inferior to TNT, and in terms of high explosiveness they exceed TNT, some of them quite significantly. Ammonium nitrate explosives are more preferable when blasting soils, because due to their high explosiveness they are able to throw more soil out of the explosion area. However, when working in rocky soils, TNT is still preferable, because due to its greater brisance, it crushes rocks better.

Ammonium nitrate explosives are mostly used in national economy and to a lesser extent in military affairs. The reasons for this use are the significantly lower cost of ammonium nitrate explosives and their significantly lower reliability in use. First of all, this is the significant hygroscopicity of amm. Explosives, which is why when moistened to more than 3%, such explosives completely lose their ability to explode. These explosives are subject to the phenomenon of caking, due to which they also completely or partially lose their explosiveness. The recrystallization processes continuously occurring in these explosives lead to an increase in the volume they occupy, which can lead to the destruction of the packaging or shells of ammunition.

Over the past decades, the armies of developed countries have carried out large-scale measures to improve conventional weapons, among which an important place has been given to engineering weapons. Engineering weapons include engineering ammunition that creates the best conditions for the effective use of all types of weapons and protection of one’s troops from modern means defeat, making it difficult for the enemy to inflict significant losses. The use of engineered ammunition in recent local conflicts has shown their increasing role in solving operational and tactical problems.

In service engineering troops Remote mining systems have appeared that make it possible to lay mines during a battle and at a considerable distance from the front line - on enemy territory. Engineering ammunition They also make it possible to create conditions for troops to quickly overcome enemy minefields. In this case, the most promising volumetric explosion ammunition is used.

What about engineered ammunition? These are, first of all, mines for various purposes - anti-tank, anti-personnel, anti-landing and the recently introduced anti-helicopter mines, as well as mine clearance charges and a number of auxiliary charges. A modern mine is a multifunctional device. Some samples of new mines contain an element of artificial intelligence and have the ability to optimize the selection of a target from several and its attack.

Of particular note are anti-personnel mines, the prohibition of which has begun a campaign by states wishing to finally disarm Russia. Due to the sharp reduction in the size of the Armed Forces, the role of engineered ammunition is increasing. Considering that engineered ammunition mainly plays a defensive role, our political and military leadership should not disarm, but promote the improvement and increase in the effectiveness of this type of weapon, which is quite reliable and has high indicators according to the “effectiveness-cost” criterion. The general direction and goal of the development of engineering weapons is mainly determined by the ability to effectively hit modern and future targets in the interests of the ground forces.

Let's consider the features and technical characteristics of engineering ammunition.

Until recently in developed countries A large number of anti-tank mines of different designs were produced, from the variety of existing designs of which three main types can be distinguished: anti-track, anti-bottom and anti-side.

Until recently, anti-track mines were considered the main ones, but are gradually losing their importance. The main disadvantage of these mines is their limited combat capability: usually only individual components of the tank’s chassis are damaged. Nevertheless, anti-track mines are still available in fairly large quantities in the troops of various countries.

Anti-track mines are designed to disable tracked and wheeled combat and transport vehicles by destroying or damaging, mainly, their chassis (caterpillars, wheels). These mines are installed using minelayers or manually (both in the ground and on its surface). Anti-tracked domestic mines are cylindrical in shape, with the exception of the TM-62D mine, which has the shape of a parallelepiped. The main characteristics of domestic anti-track mines are presented in Table 1, and foreign ones - in Table 2. Figure I, 2 shows the design diagrams of the TM-46 and TM-62T mines. Anti-track mines are equipped with mechanical push-action fuses, which are screwed into the central socket of the housing. The pressure on the fuse from the tank caterpillar is transmitted through the pressure cap. Sockets for additional fuses are provided in the side and bottom parts of the mine body. They are used when it is necessary to place mines in a non-removable position. In general, the bodies and fuses of modern mines are made of plastic, so they cannot be detected using induction mine detectors. Due to the tightness of mine bodies, most of them can be used for mining water barriers.

Fig.1. Anti-track mine TM-46:

A) - appearance; b) – section of a mine; 1 – body; 2 – diaphragm; 3 – cover; 4 – MVM ​​fuse; 5 – explosive charge; 6 – intermediate detonator; 7 – cap; 8 – handle.

Table 1 Main characteristics of anti-track mines

Mine	Weight, kg	Explosive type	Dimensions dia. x height, mm	Housing material
	general	explosive charge
TM-46	8,5	5,7	T	300x109	steel
TM-56	107	7.0	T	316x109	steel
TM-57	8,7	5,9	T	316x108	steel
	8,79	6,62	ms
	. .8,8 ,	7,0	TGA-16
TM-62M	9.0	7.18	T	320x90	steel
	9,6	7.8	M.C.
	9.62	7,78	TGA-16
	8,72	6,68	A-50
TM-62D	11.7-	8.7-		340x340x110	tree
	-13,6	-10,4
	12.4	8.8	TGA-16
TM-62P	11.0	8,0	T	340 x 80	plastic
	11.5	8,3	M.C.
	11.5	8,3	TGA-16
	10.6	7.4	A-50
	10,0	6.8	A-80
	11.0	7,8	A-XI-2
TM-62P2	8.6	7.0	T	320x90	plastic
	9,1	7,0	MS
	9,1	7,0	TGA-16
	8.3	6,1	A-50
TM-62PZ	7,2	6,3	T	320x90	plastic
	7,8	6,8	MS
	7,8	6.8	TGA-16
	7,8	6.8	TM
TM-62T	8,5	7,0	T	320 x 90	textile
	9,0	7.5	TGA-16

table 2 Foreign anti-track mines

Mine	Country of manufacture	Weight.kg	Dimensions, mm	Housing material
		general	explosive charge	diameter (length x width)	height
M15	USA	14,3	10,3	337	125	steel
M19	USA	1?,6	9,53	332x332	94	plastic
M56	USA	3,4	1.7	250x120	100	aluminum
AT-1	Germany	2,0	1,3	55	330	steel
L9A1	England	11.0	8,4	1200x100	80	plastic
SB-61	Italy	3,2	2,0	232	90	plastic

Table 3 Foreign anti-bottom mines

Mine	Country of manufacture	Weight, kg	Dimensions, mm	Housing material
		general	explosive charge	diameter (length x width)	height
M70 M73	USA	2.2	0.7	127	76	steel
AT-2	Germany	2,0	0.7	100	130	steel
PRO	France	6.0	2.0	280x165	105	plastic
SB-MV/T FFV028	Italy	5,0	2,6	235	100	plastic
SD	Sweden	5,0	3.5	250	110	steel

Fig.2. Anti-track mine TM-62T:

1-body; 2- explosive charge; 3 – ignition glass; 4 – fuse MVP-62; 5 – fuse striker; 6 – spark plug; 7 – fuse transfer charge; 8 – fuse detonator capsule.

From the point of view of equipment, domestic mines are “omnivorous”. They are equipped with TNT (T), mixtures of A-IX2, MS, TM; alloys TGA-16, TG-40; ammotols A-50, A-80, etc.

The data in Table 1 indicate that most of the presented anti-track mines have significant dimensions and a large explosive mass.

The most interesting is the English anti-track mine L9AI, which has an elongated shape (its dimensions are 1200x100x80 mm). To construct an anti-tank minefield, such mines require two times less than mines with a cylindrical body. Extended mines are more convenient to store and transport. The body of the L9A1 mine is plastic. The pressure cap is located at the top of the housing and occupies two-thirds of its length. To install this mine in the ground or on its surface, a trailed minelayer is used.

In a number of countries, several types of anti-track mines have been developed for remote mining systems, designed to damage the chassis of a tank in a contact explosion. These mines are relatively small in size and weight.

The M56 anti-track mine (USA) is a component of a helicopter mining system. The body of the mine has the shape of a half-cylinder and is equipped with four drop-down stabilizers, which reduce the speed at which the mine falls (mining is carried out from a height of about 30 m). A pressure cap is located on the flat surface of the housing. The electromechanical fuse is located in the end part of the housing and has two stages of protection. The first is removed when the mine leaves the cassette installation, the second - one or two minutes after it falls to the ground. In the firing position, the mine can be turned with the pressure cover both up and down. The fuse is equipped with a self-destruct element, which causes the mine to explode after a certain time. The M56 mine is produced in three versions. The mines of the first (main) version are equipped with a single-stroke fuse, the second - with a two-stroke fuse, triggered by repeated impact on the pressure cover. The fuse of the mine of the third option is activated by shaking the body of the mine or changing its position. The mines of the last two options are intended to prevent the enemy from removing them from the passages manually or making passages in the minefield using roller trawls.

West German AT-1 mines are loaded with 110-mm Lars MLRS cluster munitions. Each ammunition contains 8 mines, equipped with a pressure-action fuse, non-neutralization and self-destruction elements.

Italy has developed several types of anti-track mines intended for installation by helicopter systems, including the SB-81 mine, which has a plastic body and an electromechanical fuse with a pressure sensor. In addition to helicopters, this mine can be installed by a minelayer.

Anti-water mines, compared to anti-track mines, have a significantly greater destructive effect. Exploding under the bottom of the tank and penetrating it, they infect the crew and disable the vehicle's weapons and equipment. The explosion of such a mine under a tank track disables it. Anti-water mines are equipped with a shaped charge or a charge based on the impact core principle. Most anti-bottom mines have proximity fuses with magnetic sensors that detect changes magnetic field when a tank passes over a mine. Such a fuse is installed on the Swedish anti-bottom mine FFV028. When a tank passes over a mine, electrical voltage is supplied to an electric detonator, which initiates an explosion of the overburden charge, and then (with some time delay) the main charge (the armor penetration of the mine from a distance of 0.5 m is 70 mm). When the overburden charge is triggered, the upper part of the fuse, the cover of the mine body and the camouflage layer of soil are discarded, thereby creating favorable conditions for the formation of an impact core. A typical layout diagram of the SB-MV/T anti-bottom mine is shown in Fig. 3.

Fig.3. Layout diagram of the SB-MV/T anti-tank mine: 1 – magnetic sensor; 2 – power supply; 3 – software element of the mine neutralization device; 4-seismic sensor; 5 – device for delaying the transfer of the fuse to the firing position; 6 – lever for moving the fuse to the firing position; 7 – fuse activation element; 8 – main charge; 9 – transition charge; 10 – detonator; 11 - igniter capsule; 12 – overburden charge.

The French anti-bottom mine HPD is equipped with a fuse with magnetic and seismic sensors. The armor penetration of the mine from a distance of 0.5 m is 70 mm. The mine explodes when both sensors are triggered simultaneously. To drop the housing cover and the camouflage layer of soil in the HPD mine, an additional (overburden) charge is used. Mining with these mines is carried out using a minelayer.

Much attention is paid to the development of anti-bottom mines for remote mining systems. In the USA, for example, dispersible anti-bottom mines have been created using artillery and aircraft mining systems (M70, M73 and BLU-91/B mines). These mines are small in size and equipped with proximity fuses with magnetic sensors and anti-removal elements. The M70 and M73 mines are components of the RAAMS artillery anti-tank mining system (for 155 mm howitzers). Cluster shells of this system contain nine M70 or M73 mines, which have shaped charges directed in opposite directions, which does not require special orientation on the ground surface. These mines are identical in design and differ only in their self-destruction time.

Table 4 The effectiveness of anti-track and anti-bottom mines

Anti-track mine effectiveness	Efficiency of anti-bottom mine
The tank lacks mobility;	The tank lacks mobility and firepower;
- the caterpillar is damaged;	- the bottom is broken;
- the roller and suspension are damaged,	- units inside the tank were significantly damaged as a result of a mine explosion and ammunition detonation,
- the crew is shell-shocked, but partially combat-ready.	- the crew is completely disabled;
- firepower saved;	- repair (if at all possible) in the factory.
- Can be repaired in the field

The West German anti-bottom mine AT-2 is designed for constructing anti-tank barriers using ground, missile and aviation systems mining. The mine has a warhead based on the impact core principle.

The comparative effectiveness of anti-track and anti-bottom mines is presented in Fig. 4 and Table 4.

Anti-aircraft mines are designed to destroy tanks and armored vehicles at a distance of several tens of meters. These mines are effective when used to block roads and create barriers in forests and populated areas. The destructive element of anti-aircraft mines is an impact core or a cumulative anti-tank grenade fired from a guide tube.

The French and British armies are armed with the MAN F1 mine (Fig. 5), which has a warhead (armor penetration 70 mm from a distance of 40 m) based on the principle of an impact core. The mine body can be rotated in a vertical plane relative to a support consisting of two posts and a support ring. The fuse is activated by a 40-meter contact wire.

The American anti-aircraft mine M24 consists of an 88.9-mm grenade (from the M29 anti-tank rifle), a guide pipe, a fuse with a contact sensor made in the form of a tape, a power source and connecting wires. The guide pipe acts as a container in which the mine is stored and transported. Place the installation at a distance of about 30 m from the road or passage. When the tank's caterpillar hits the contact strip, the fuse circuit is closed and the anti-tank grenade is fired. An improved model of this mine, the M66, has been developed. It differs from M24 in that. that instead of a contact sensor, infrared and seismic sensors are used. The mines are put into firing position after the seismic sensor is triggered. It also includes an infrared target sensor. The grenade is fired as soon as the armored target crosses the emitter-receiver line.

Anti-tank minefields (ATMP) are installed primarily in tank-hazardous areas in front of the front, on the flanks and junctions of units, as well as in depth to cover artillery firing positions, command and observation posts and other objects. An anti-tank minefield usually has a frontal dimension of 200...300 m or more, and a depth of 60...120 m or more. Mines are installed in three to four rows with a distance between rows of 20...40 m and between mines in a row - 4...6 m for anti-track mines and 9...12 m for anti-bottom mines. The consumption of mines per 1 km of a minefield is 550...750 anti-track mines or 300...400 anti-bottom mines. In particularly important areas, PTMG1 can be installed with an increased consumption of mines: up to 1000 or more anti-track mines or 500 or more anti-bottom mines. Such minefields are usually called high-efficiency minefields.

Fig.5. Layout diagram of the MAN F1 anti-aircraft mine:

1-charge; 2 – copper cladding; 3 – support ring; 4 – detonator capsule; 5 – fuse; 6 – power supply; 7 – transition charge; 8 – detonator.

Fig.4. Comparative effectiveness of the destructive action of anti-niche and anti-track mines:

1 – zone of action of the anti-bottom mine;

2 – zone of action of the anti-track mine.

Table 5 Foreign anti-aircraft mines

Mine	Country of manufacture	Weight, kg		Dimensions, mm		Housing material
		general	explosive charge	diameter	height
M24, M66	USA	10,8	0,9	89	609	steel
MAH F1	France	12,0	6,5	185	270	steel

Anti-personnel mines vary in design and are mainly of the high-explosive or fragmentation type. Main characteristics of some domestic samples anti-personnel mines are presented in Table 6. The name MON-50 means that this mine has a directed fragmentation effect. These mines are in service with various countries. Typically, the plastic casings of such mines are made in the form of a curved prism, in which a plastic explosive charge with a large number of fragments is placed. For ease of installation on the ground, there are hinged legs at the bottom of the mine body. The most common way to detonate a mine is to use a standard tension-action fuze, which is triggered when the target touches a tension wire. When a mine explodes, a flat bunch of fragments is formed. Directional fragmentation mines are designed to destroy personnel moving in deployed combat formations.

The PMN index means that this mine is an anti-personnel pressure mine. The design of the PMN anti-personnel mine is shown in Fig. 6.

Bouncing fragmentation anti-personnel mines are now widely used. Such a mine is triggered when a walking person touches a tension wire or puts pressure on special conductors connected by an explosive chain. As a result of this, the expelling powder charge is ignited, with the help of which the mine is thrown to the height of the chest of a walking person, where an explosion occurs and people in this area are hit by shrapnel.

Anti-personnel minefields (APMF) are installed in front of the front edge and, as a rule, in front of anti-tank minefields in order to cover them. They can be made from high-explosive mines, fragmentation mines, or a combination of high-explosive and fragmentation mines. PPMP, depending on their purpose, is installed with a length along the front from 30 to 300 m or more, in depth - 10...50 m or more. The number of rows in a minefield is usually two to four, the distance between rows is 5 m or more, between mines in a row is at least 1 m for high-explosive mines and one or two radius of continuous destruction for fragmentation mines. The consumption of mines per 1 km of a minefield is assumed to be: high-explosive - 2000...3000 pcs.; fragmentation – 100…300 pcs. In areas where infantry advances in large numbers, PPMPs of increased efficiency can be installed - with double or triple consumption of mines.

Table 6 Main characteristics of anti-personnel mines

Mine	Weight, kg		Explosive type	Dimensions mm		Housing material
	general	explosive charge		(length x width)	height
MON-50	2,0	0.7	PVV-5A	225x153	54	plastic
MOH-90	12,4	6.5	PVV-5A	343 x 202	153	plastic
MON-100	7,5	2.0	T	236	83	steel
	7.0	1,5	A-50
MON-200	30,0	12.0	T	434	131	steel
	28,7	10,7	A-50
PMN	0.58	0,21	T	100	56	plastic
LMN-2	0.95	0.4	TG-40	122	54	plastic

Fig.6. Anti-personnel mine PMN:

a) – general view; b) – section; 1 – body; 2 – shield; 3 – cap; 4 – wire or tape; 5 – rod; 6 – spring; 7 – split ring; 8 – drummer; 9 – mainspring; 10 – thrust bushing; 11 – safety pin; 12 – metal element; 13 – explosive charge; 14 – MD-9 fuse; 15 – plug; 16 – cap; 17 – gasket; 18 – metal frame; 19-string.

Table 7 Main characteristics of antilanding mines

Mine	Weight, kg		Explosive type	Dimensions mm		Housing material
	general	explosive charge		(length x width)	height
PDM-1M	18,0	10,0	T	380	143	steel
PDM-2	21,0	15.0	T	380	342	steel
PDM-3Ya	34,0	15.0	T	650		steel
YARM	12,1	3.0	T	275	34V	steel

Table 8 Main characteristics of special mines

Mine	Weight, kg		Explosive type	Dimensions, mm		Housing material
	general	explosive charge		(length x width)	height
ZhDM-6	24.2	14,0	1	250	230	steel
ADM-7	24,2	14,0	T	215	265	steel
ADM-8	24,2	14,0	T	220	252	steel
MPM	0.74	0,3	TG-50	148x72	46	plastic
SPM	2,35	0,93	MS	248x114	72	steel
BPM	7,14	2,6	T	292	110	steel
BPM	7,44	2.9	TGA-16	292	110	steel

Fig.7. PDM-2 mine on a low stand:

1 – rod; 2 – check; 3 – fuse; 4 – housing with explosive charge; 5 – lock nut; 6 – bopt; 7 – flange; 8 – upper beam; 9 – lower beam; 10 – steel sheet; 11 – washer; 12 – latch; 13 – handle; 14 – roller.

Fig.8. PDM-2 mine body:

1 – body; 2 – central neck; 3-glass; 4 – intermediate detonator; 5 – side neck; 6 – nipple; 7 – charge; 8 – gaskets; 9 – plugs.

Fig.9. Charge S3-3L:

a) – general view; b) – section; 1 – body; 2 – explosive charge; 3 – intermediate detonators; 4 – ignition socket for the detonator capsule; 5 – socket for a special fuse; 6 – plugs; 7 – handle; 8 – rings for tying the charge.

1 – body; 2 – cumulative lining; 3 – explosive charge; 4 – intermediate detonator; 5 – ignition socket; 6 – handle; 7 – retractable legs; 8 – plug.

Fig. 10. Charge S3-6M:

1 – nylon shell; 2 – polyethylene shell; 3 – plastic explosive charge; 4 – intermediate detonators; 5 – rubber couplings; 6 – metal clips; 7 – socket for the detonator capsule; 8 – socket for a special fuse; 9 – plugs; 10 – union nut; 11 – rings for tying the charge.

Currently, the engineering forces of developed countries have nuclear mines with TNT equivalent from 2 to 1000 tons.

Assessing the effectiveness of nuclear mines, foreign experts believe that they can be used as a multi-purpose weapon against advancing enemy forces. It is believed that the explosion of nuclear mines located in special concrete or ground wells creates zones of destruction and contamination that can dismember battle formations enemy troops, direct its advance to areas favorable for launching conventional and nuclear strikes against it. An important area of ​​the use of nuclear mines is considered to be the strengthening of mine-explosive barriers in tank-hazardous directions. The defensive effect of nuclear mines is due to the creation as a result of explosions of craters, rubble, zones of destruction and contamination, which are a serious obstacle to the movement of troops.

The crater from a nuclear mine explosion is a difficult obstacle to overcome, since its large size, steep slopes and rapid filling with water greatly impede the movement of not only vehicles, but also tanks.

The size of the craters will depend on the TNT equivalent of nuclear mines, the depth of their placement and the methods of detonation. When a mine explodes on the surface of the earth with a power of 1.2 kt, a crater with a diameter of 27 m and a depth of 6.4 m is formed; the same charge, exploded at a depth of 5 m, forms a crater with a diameter of 79 m and a depth of up to 16 m, and at a depth of 20 m - with a diameter of 89 m and a depth of 27.5 m. The protective effect of a nuclear mine explosion is enhanced by the fallout of radioactive fallout over a large area.

To mine water lines in areas of possible landings, anti-landing mines are used to destroy landing craft and combat transport vehicles. The main characteristics of these mines are presented in Table 7, distinctive feature which is their use in a submerged position.

The design of antilanding mines and their main components are presented using the example of the PDM-2 mine in Fig. 7, 8.

For mining railways (ZhDM-6), highways (ADM-7, ADM-8) and solving other specific problems, special mines are used (Table 8). MPM, SPM, BIM mines have the property of “sticking” (using a magnet or adhesive material) and have a quasi-cumulative lining for the formation of significant holes in barriers.

To make passages in anti-tank and anti-mine fields, extended mine clearance charges are used (Table 9). They are advanced manually or mechanized, or launched into a minefield using jet engines. Therefore, explosive charges are placed in metal pipes or in flexible fabric or plastic sleeves (hoses). The charges UZ-1, UZ-2, UZ-Z and UZ-ZR are metal pipes in which pressed TNT blocks are placed. The UZ-67 charge consists of a sleeve (the material is nylon-based fabric), in which TNT blocks are strung on a flexible hose with an explosive of type A-IX-1. The UZP-72 and UZP-77 charges are based on a flexible rope with wound layers of a plastic charge made of PVV-7, placed in a sleeve made of a special fabric.

Table 9 Main characteristics of extended mine clearance charges

Mine	Weight, kg		Explosive type	Dimensions	mm	Housing material
	general	explosive charge		(length x width)	height
UZ-1	5,3	2,88	T	53	1200	steel
UZ-2	10,24	5,33	T	53	2000	steel
UZ-Z	43	8 kg/p. m.	T	53	1950	steel
UZ-ZR	43		T	53	1950	steel
UZ-67	55.5	41,6	T+A-XI -1	80	10 500	steel
UZP-72	47,7	41.2	PVV-7	80	10 500	steel
UZL-77	47,7	41.2	PVV-7	80	10 500	steel

Note: p.m. – linear meter.

Table 10 Main characteristics of concentrated charges

Mine	Weight, kg		Explosive type	Dimensions	mm	Housing material
	general	explosive charge		(length x width)	height
SZ-1	1,4	1,0	T	65x116	126	steel
NW-W	3.7	3.0	T	65x171	337	steel
NW-WA	3,/	2,8	T	98x142	200	steel
SZ-6	7,3	5.9	T	98x142	395	steel
sz-vm	6,9	6.0	PVV-5A	82	1200	textile
SZ-1P	1,5	L.b	PVV-5A	45	600	textile
SZ-4P	4,2	4,2	PVV-5A	45	2000	textile

Table 11 Main characteristics of shaped charges

Mine	Weight, kg		Explosive type	Dimensions mm		Material
	general	explosive charge		(length x width)	case height
KZ-1	14,47	9.0	TG-40	350	570	steel
KZ-2	14,8	9,0	TG-40	350	650	steel
KZ-4	63,0	49,0	TG-50	410	440	step
KZ-5	12.5	8,5	TG-40	215	280	steel
KZ-6	3,0	1,8	TG-40	112	292	steel
KZ-7	6,5	4,2	TG-40	162	272	steel
KZU	18,0	12,0	TG-50	195x225	500	steel
KZK	1,0	0,4	TG-50	52x160	200	steel
	0,56	0,185	TG-40	76x70	1507	steel
KZU-1	0,0	032	TG-40	85x105	160	steel

Table 12 Characteristics of TNT blocks
Table 13 Characteristics of checkers made of plastic explosives
Table 14 Characteristics of detonating cords

Fig. 12. Cumulative charge KZU-2:

a) – longitudinal section; b) – cross section; 1 – foam insert; 2 – explosive charge (TG-40); 3 – body; 4 – plug; 5 – gasket; 6 – bushing; 7 – gasket; 8- glass; 9 – checker BB A-XI-1; 10 – cap; 11 - ring; 12 – latch; 13 – bar; 14 – bracket; 15 – leaf spring; 16 – magnet; 17 – cumulative lining; 18 – clamp.

Fig. 13. Schemes for installing KZU-2 charges (the arrow indicates the installation location of the electric detonator or fuse)

To carry out blasting operations in emergency situations, for example, when it is necessary to produce the shortest possible time homemade mine, concentrated charges are used (Table 10). Charges SZ-ZA (Fig. 9), SZ-6, SZ-6M (Fig. 10) can be used for blasting operations under water. It should be noted that the SZ-ZA, SZ-6 and SZ-6M charges can be successfully used in underwater blasting operations.

Shaped charges (Table 11) are used to pierce or cut thick metal plates when destroying armored and reinforced concrete defensive structures.

The design and elements of shaped charges KZ-2, KZU-2 are presented in Fig. 11-13.

In the engineering troops, for carrying out blasting operations, TNT and plastic explosives are used in the form of checkers, the main characteristics of which are presented in Table. 12,13.

To transmit an explosive impulse during explosions, detonating cords are widely used in the engineering troops (Table 14).

Of all the ammunition in service with the Russian Army, engineering ammunition is remarkable in that it is dual-use ammunition, i.e. can be used when carrying out blasting operations in the national economy to solve specific problems in the mining, metallurgical and oil industries. For this reason, no funding is required for their disposal. Engineering ammunition that has reached the end of its service life should be transferred to civilian organizations conducting blasting operations (for example, in the mining industry). Metallurgical plants have currently accumulated millions of tons of so-called scrubs, which are large, multi-ton objects with a significant iron content. Due to the crisis state of our metallurgical industry, these scrubs can serve as a good raw material base. But for obvious reasons, such scrubs cannot be transported and loaded into blast furnaces, i.e. they need to be cut. In this case, engineered ammunition is an indispensable tool for solving this problem. The technology for cutting such a scrub is as follows. By detonating a shaped charge (KZ-1, KZ-2, KZ-4), a crater (significant in depth and diameter) is created in the scrub, which is filled with explosives and detonation is carried out. As a result of these activities, the scrub is broken into pieces that can be transported and loaded into a blast furnace. This is just one of thousands of examples of the use of engineered ammunition in the national economy.

The creation of a new generation of highly effective dual-use engineering ammunition will, on the one hand, ensure fighting Ground Forces and, on the other hand, their use in the national economy (after the expiration of their service life) will significantly save the financial resources of our state.

More than once or twice in recent years, our mass media, especially television, have hysterically informed the general public about the “criminally negligent attitude of the military towards ammunition”, about “another deadly discovery”, about those discovered in the forest (at a shooting range, an abandoned military camp, location of the exercise), etc. and so on. shells, missiles, mines. Television very willingly and in detail shows these “terrible discoveries”, interviews excited ordinary people, stigmatizes “criminals in uniform”, demands to investigate the “blatant bungling” and strictly punish the perpetrators. By the way, for some reason, yesterday’s students who received a minimum of military training at military departments, but consider themselves to be major specialists in military affairs, are especially excited.

And every time my eye, as usual with boredom, fixes the white stripes on the shells of mines, the distinct inscriptions “inert”, the black coloring of “unexploded” shells. All these finds are no more dangerous than an old harrow, or, say, an old typewriter (faulty).

In this article, the author wants to try to teach non-military people to distinguish training, completely harmless engineering ammunition from truly dangerous combat mines and fuses. Maybe then no one will have to, abandoning the exciting mushroom picking or throwing down the rake, grabbing his children in his arms, and rush to the phone to notify the authorities about the find. Or, on the contrary, you won’t have to expose your life to mortal danger by carrying home a small, elegant, gray projectile with black letters (to be honest, it happens that a projectile flies to the wrong place, and the valiant army lost entire missiles).

First of all, in contrast to artillery training (inert) ammunition, which, to distinguish them from combat ammunition, is painted not gray, but black, in contrast to naval ammunition, in which the warhead of training torpedoes, mines, shells, and missiles is painted red -white color, engineering ammunition, both combat and training, training and simulation, are painted the same way. The color of engineering ammunition can be different - green, black, dirty yellow, brown, gray, bare metal, etc.

You can distinguish between combat and training (inert), training and simulation engineering ammunition by markings.

Small-sized ammunition such as fuses, detonator caps, electric detonators, on which it is impossible to place alphanumeric markings, have the following distinctive features:
*educational (inert) - white stripe;
*training and simulation - red stripe. When triggered, these munitions produce either a flash of flame, or colored smoke, or make a sharp sound, a pop. You cannot be seriously injured by them, but you can get injured.
*combat - without colored stripes. These items are deadly.

The picture shows life-size No. 8 blasting caps. The top two are combat (aluminum above, copper below). The third from the top is educational, the bottom is training and simulation. You just want to twirl these beautiful shiny silver or golden tubes in your hands, finger them, play with them, and children often put them in their mouths. The result of an explosion in the hands of a detonator cap is three severed fingers and a broken eye (standard!). Capsules, igniters, electric detonators, and fuses have exactly the same markings.

Recently, some small training ammunition has begun to be marked with the letter AND. For example, this is how PFM-1 training mines are marked.

Anti-tank mines, metal and wood, are usually painted green (less often dirty yellow). The mines are marked on the side of the body with black paint. The top number indicates the product number. Below is the product code. Usually this is a mine brand (TM-46, TMD-B, etc.). Below that is a triple number written with hyphens. The first number is the equipment plant number, the second is the mine batch number, the third is the year the mine was equipped. At the very bottom is the code of the explosive used in the mine. Usually you can find the following ciphers: A-50, A-80, G, PVV-4, MS, TGA, TG-50, TG-30, T, Tetr, TN. These or other alphanumeric combinations indicate that this is a combat mine. The training mine has a white horizontal stripe in place of the explosive code.

Training mines TM-62M and all mines of later developments, in addition, have a black inscription on the side of the body INERT., or INERT., or INERT.

Training mines are filled with a mixture of cement and rosin. This the mixture is identical in weight and volume to TNT, but it is absolutely not dangerous.

The upper part of the TM-46 training mines, in addition, is painted white, as shown in the figure, where the TM-46 training mine is shown on the left, and the combat mine on the right. TM-57 and later mines do not have a white color on the upper part of the hull.

Exactly the same markings are on plastic cases. On the bodies of anti-tank mines made of polyethylene, where the paint does not adhere well, the markings may be embossed, i.e. having no color. However, a white stripe is also applied to polyethylene shells of training mines.

It is also possible to place markings on anti-tank mines in a different way (for example, on the bottom of the hull or on its upper part). However, in all cases, on the body of the training mine there will be, at a minimum, a white stripe or the inscription “inert” or both.

On anti-personnel mines the markings are the same, but they are placed locally, i.e. where it is more convenient to do this. The picture shows a training anti-personnel mine PMN. The marking is placed on the rubber cover. The inscription “inert” and the white stripe are clearly visible. The PMN combat mine has an explosive font in place of the white stripe.

Boxes with engineering ammunition are usually painted dark green, less often unpainted. Markings are applied on the side wall with black paint. The top row is the code of the product and the number of products in the box, below, separated by hyphens, the code of the manufacturer, batch number, year of manufacture, below is the code of the explosive with which the products are equipped. For boxes with training ammunition, “INERT” is written in this place and an additional white stripe is applied to the side. For boxes with imitation ammunition, the stripe is red. The lowest gross weight of the box. In addition to these mandatory markings, the boxes may be marked with cargo capacity in the form of a black triangle with a number in the center (for civil transport organizations), warning notices (such as: “When transporting by plane, pierce with an awl here”, “Afraid of dampness”, “Do not tip”, “Flammable cargo”, etc.). If different products are packed in one box (for example, TNT blocks of different nomenclature), then their codes and quantity are also indicated on the box.

In the picture on the left is a box with TM-46 combat mines, on the right with training mines.

In all cases, inert and live ammunition are not placed together in one box.

On anti-personnel mines (type PMD-6M, POMZ-2M), which are manufactured or equipped with explosives and fuses in the army (and this is only permitted in war time) there may be no markings at all. Also, any markings may be missing on Soviet engineer ammunition from the Second World War.

Sources

1. Guide to demolition work. Approved beginning Eng. USSR Ministry of Defense troops 07/27/67 Military publishing house. Moscow. 1969
2. Manual on military engineering for the Soviet Army. Military publishing house. Moscow. 1984
3. Engineering ammunition. Book one. Military publishing house. Moscow. 1976
4. B.V. Varenyshev and others. Textbook. Military engineering training. Military publishing house. Moscow. 1982
5. B.S.Kolibernov and others. Directory of an officer of engineering troops. Military publishing house. Moscow. 1989

---***---

From the author An old typewriter, if it works, is much more dangerous than any mine. It is impossible to imagine how much deadly poison a typewriter can spill into people’s brains if it falls into the experienced hands of a green (dollar) journalist.

Variety of aircraft shells and bullets

Not a single air cannon or machine gun can successfully hit an enemy aircraft if at least one single cartridge is not loaded into it. However, it is important to understand what exactly this cartridge may turn out to be and what part of the enemy aircraft it would be best to fire it at in order to be guaranteed to destroy the target.

Below are detailed descriptions of all the main types of aircraft ammunition used in the game:

Types of aircraft ammunition

Practical projectile

Practical equipment

Practical projectile

These are the simplest and weakest projectiles in design, made from the casings of high-explosive fragmentation projectiles (or others), without or with filler, but always without combat fillers (incendiary or explosives). An inert substance (not prone to explosion) can be used as a filler, which is designed to imitate the mass of explosives. The penetration ability of practical shells is lower than that of armor-piercing shells, although the principle of influencing the target is similar - to pierce and damage the internal module. The difference is that if the module is protected by armor, then a practical projectile can simply be flattened against it (if there is not enough penetration) without causing any harm to the protected module.
Practical projectiles are used due to their lower cost and ease of manufacture, as well as for shooting training.

In the game, such shells are the weakest component of the belt (most often “standard”), which is best replaced with something more suitable immediately after studying the corresponding modification.

General purpose bullet cartridge

• P- practical equipment

General purpose bullet

It is a regular bullet without an armor-piercing (steel, for example, or tungsten carbide) core. The bullet is usually made of lead. Accordingly, such a bullet has reduced penetration compared to armor-piercing bullets and does not have an incendiary effect.

In the game, such bullets are the weakest component of the belt (most often “standard”), which is best replaced with something more suitable immediately after studying the corresponding modification.

Game designations for this type of ammunition:

• P- General purpose bullet

Cartridge with tracer bullet

Tracers and bullets

Tracer shells (or bullets) leave a smoky or luminous trail behind them and serve to quickly adjust fire. The mark is formed due to the slow combustion of a special pyrotechnic composition pressed, as a rule, into the rear of the projectile or bullet. This composition ignites at the moment of firing, due to the heating of the powder gases in the cartridge case.
The presence of a tracer changes the ballistic properties of the bullet by reducing its mass and balancing, which change during flight, which can negatively affect shooting accuracy.
The tracer bullet must leave a clearly visible trail behind itself, while at the same time having the flight path as close as possible to the combat bullet. Because of the tracer, it is often made longer, and in order to maintain the dimensions of the cartridge, it is recessed deeper into the cartridge case, compared to a conventional bullet. In this case, the elongation affects its ballistic characteristics, and then it is necessary to change the weight and balance of the bullet. Tracer ammunition is the leader in terms of design complexity. The accuracy of shooting depends on how accurately the tracer bullet follows the flight path of an ordinary/armor-piercing/explosive bullet. The presence of a tracer in ammunition of a larger caliber, from 12.7 mm and more, no longer greatly affects the basic properties of the projectile.
There are special versions of tracer pyrotechnic compositions for night fighters that have a muted brightness during the combustion process. The muted glow of the night tracer makes it difficult for the enemy to detect the shooter, and also does not blind him and allows him to concentrate on firing.

A regular tracer bullet has a lead core and does not penetrate armor well, so there are armor-piercing and armor-piercing incendiary (with an additional incendiary composition) tracer bullets and shells with a steel core. There are incendiary tracer shells (with a strong incendiary effect). In the game, tracers are an integral part of many various types shells and bullets. Thanks to the presence of tracers in the tape, players can successfully direct fire at the target and better recognize the ballistics of a particular weapon model. It should be noted that a tracer bullet is, in its essence, also an incendiary bullet; if it hits a flammable environment, it easily sets it on fire (although it does this worse than special incendiary bullets).

Game designations for this type of ammunition:

• T- tracer bullet
• PT- practical tracer projectile

Incendiary shells and bullets

Incendiary projectile

Incendiary tracer cartridges

Incendiary bullets filled with yellow phosphorus first appeared in World War I and were intended to ignite balloons and airplanes. After all, both the huge Zeppelins and nimble airplanes turned out to be very vulnerable to fire. Combat experience has shown that an ordinary tracer bullet has a great incendiary effect, and one special incendiary bullet was often enough to destroy an enemy aircraft. Therefore, incendiary bullets are most widely used in aviation. And it was the incendiary bullet that became the gravedigger of combat airships, since a tiny fighter in one burst destroyed a giant zeppelin, in which the carrier gas was flammable hydrogen. During the First World War, the following 5 types of incendiary bullets became most widespread: French Ph (Phosphore); French Parno; French caliber 11 mm; German S.Pr.; English S.A. like Bookings. The incendiary bullets of the first two samples have in general the following structure: inside the bullet there is a cylindrical channel filled with white phosphorus. Two metal discs with a spacer are inserted at the back. At the bottom of the bullet, in its side wall near the discs, there is a hole for the release of phosphorus, filled with a special low-melting compound (plug). When fired, powder gases melt this composition and phosphorus begins to flow out of the open hole in the wall of the bullet.

The incendiary bullets of the last two samples have a slightly different design: white phosphorus is inserted into the copper nickel-plated shell of the bullet, and a lead plug is inserted at the back; On the inside, a free lead cylinder with longitudinal channels for the passage of phosphorus adjoins the lead plug. In the shell, as in the bullets of the design described above, at a distance of approximately 1/5 of the length of the bullet from its rear cut there is a hole for the release of phosphorus, filled with a low-melting compound. When fired, the powder gases melt this composition (open a hole), and when the bullet hits an obstacle (target), the free lead cylinder, by inertia, tends to move forward and squeezes phosphorus through its channels into the exit hole. The incendiary composition of a modern bullet consists of two components: an oxidizer (potassium perchloride or barium nitrate) and a combustible substance (magnesium and aluminum alloys).

The combustion of an incendiary composition can easily ignite flammable materials (thatched roofs, dry grass) and liquids such as gasoline in aircraft tanks.
Due to their reduced weight, incendiary rounds and bullets have poorer ballistic and penetration characteristics than solid ammunition. Due to their low effectiveness against armored targets, incendiary bullets are rarely produced in their pure form, being mainly used in combination with other types of cartridges, such as armor-piercing ones.

In the game, such ammunition is best suited for setting fire to fuel tanks and other flammable components, provided that the incendiary composition has reached the flammable substance.

Game designations for this type of ammunition:

• Z- incendiary bullet
• ST- incendiary tracer projectile (or bullet)
• ST*- incendiary tracer projectile (with self-destructor) - a self-destructor is a delayed-action fuse that automatically fires some time after the shot, even if the projectile does not hit an obstacle. The point of such technology is that a projectile, even passing by the target, still has a chance to cause damage to it due to the force of the explosion or fragments, or to set it on fire by hitting a particle of an incendiary composition flying in different directions.

Combined action bullet (CA) 1 – bullet casing, 2 – armor-piercing tip, 3 – explosive charge, 4 – cup, 5 – incendiary composition, 6 – tracer composition, 7 – ignition composition.



Polish incendiary cartridges: 1 – cartridge with an incendiary (phosphorus) bullet for infantry, 2 – cartridge with an incendiary (phosphorus) bullet for aviation.



12.7 mm American cartridge with an incendiary bullet.



7.92 mm German incendiary cartridges: Cartridge with armor-piercing incendiary bullet PtK, cartridge with sighting bullet B. Patrone, cartridge with incendiary (phosphorus) bullet.



Types of incendiary bullets: A – sighting-incendiary; B – armor-piercing incendiary; B – armor-piercing-incendiary-tracer. 1 – shell – steel clad with tombac; 2 – incendiary composition; 3 – steel core; 4 – lead jacket; 5 – brass circle; 6 – brass cup; 7 – steel striker with a sting; 8 – brass fuse (split ring); 9 – capsule; 10 – iron gasket; 11 – tracer composition; 12 – ring; 13 – hole.



7.7 mm English rifle cartridges: 1 – cartridge with an incendiary (phosphorus) bullet, 2 – cartridge with an armor-piercing incendiary (phosphorus) bullet.



7.7 mm Japanese rifle cartridge with an incendiary (phosphorus) bullet.



7.62 mm American rifle cartridge with an incendiary bullet.



12.7-mm Italian cartridge with an armor-piercing incendiary tracer BZT bullet. 1 – outer shell of the bullet, 2 – shell of the nose, 3 – armor-piercing core, 4 – nose, 5 – tracer cup, 6 – tracer ring, 7 – shirt, 8 – incendiary composition, 9 – tracer composition, 10 – celluloid gasket (circle )

Explosive bullets

Explosive bullets, as the name suggests, explode when they hit a target due to the detonation of a small explosive charge located in the head. An explosive round is essentially a smaller version of a high explosive round, carrying a much smaller explosive charge inside it. Quite often, in order to increase the damaging effect, the explosive in such a bullet upon detonation additionally has an incendiary effect, or consists entirely of an incendiary composition.
The main feature that distinguishes explosive bullets from simple incendiary bullets is the presence of a special detonator, which is triggered when the bullet hits an obstacle and causes forced arson or detonation of the main charge.
As a rule, an explosive bullet is completely destroyed when it hits even relatively thin obstacles such as plywood, branches, and even a simple canvas covering of an aircraft, and therefore is not capable of penetrating even the thinnest armor.

MDZ cartridge

In the game, such shells are well suited for damaging the outer skin and tail of an aircraft, damaging fuel tanks and other flammable, but not armored internal modules.

Game designations for this type of ammunition:

• PZ- sighting-incendiary bullet - an explosive bullet that allows you to adjust shooting, focusing on flashes of explosions of the incendiary composition.
• MDZ- instant-action incendiary bullet - an explosive bullet, similar in principle to sighting-incendiary cartridges, but containing much more explosive incendiary substance.

Armor-piercing shells and bullets

Armor-piercing cartridge

Armor-piercing chamber projectile

Armor-piercing shells are designed specifically to hit armored targets. Such projectiles are made of stronger or hardened steel and have special armor-piercing tips that are not destroyed when they hit the armor.
Armor-piercing bullets most often hide strong armor-piercing cores inside their soft lead shell, which pierce the armor upon contact, leaving all the lead on the surface of the armor. However, such bullets often pay for their high armor-piercing qualities with reduced mass, and therefore reduced ballistic characteristics. Also, in addition to the core, armor-piercing bullets often contain a small amount of incendiary composition inside to cause fires in pierced tanks and target components.

In the game, armor-piercing shells and bullets with a high probability disable engines, hit the pilot, as well as all other internal modules of the aircraft (fuel and cooling systems, control rods, spars). However, if such ammunition hits a part of the plane or fuselage behind which there is no vital module located, the damage to the pierced skin itself will be extremely insignificant - the shells will simply pass right through, leaving only a small hole, and it will take many hits to destroy the power aircraft design.

Game designations for this type of ammunition:

• B- armor-piercing projectile (or bullet).
• B- armor-piercing chamber projectile - similar to a regular one armor-piercing projectile, but additionally has a cavity (chamber) inside with an explosive charge and a bottom fuse. After penetrating the armor, the explosive detonates, hitting the crew and internal modules of the target with fragments and explosion products. In general, this projectile is distinguished by a noticeably higher armor penetration and slightly reduced armor penetration (due to the lower mass and strength of the projectile).
• BP- armor-piercing sub-caliber projectile (abbreviated simply sub-caliber) - ammunition, the diameter of the armor-piercing part detachable (on impact, or during flight) is less than the diameter of the gun barrel. According to the principle of action, it most closely resembles armor-piercing bullets with a core. Such projectiles are used to increase initial speed and better armor penetration and are used mainly to combat well-armored targets. Another advantage is an increase in firing range due to a flatter trajectory. However, due to the lighter mass of the projectile, its armor-piercing effect decreases with distance significantly more than that of conventional caliber armor-piercing ammunition.
• BT- armor-piercing tracer projectile (or bullet).
• BZ- armor-piercing incendiary projectile (or bullet).
• BS-41- Soviet armor-piercing incendiary bullet BS-41, has increased armor penetration. The bullet consists of a lead jacket, a tungsten-based cermet core and an incendiary composition.
• BZT- armor-piercing incendiary tracer projectile (or bullet).

High explosive projectile

High explosive shells

High explosive shells cause damage upon contact with the target due to the detonation of the explosive. The most common type of projectile (along with fragmentation, high-explosive fragmentation and the like) for combating unarmored air and ground targets.
The walls of high-explosive projectiles, as a rule, are very thin, and the entire internal cavity is filled with an explosive substance, which is the main damaging factor of such a projectile. The fuses on high-explosive projectiles are usually installed in the nose and detonate, either instantly upon contact with the target, or with a short delay during which the projectile manages to penetrate under the outer skin of the aircraft, thereby causing greater damage to the modules located behind it.

demining

Anti-personnel mine POM-2.

The POM-2 anti-personnel mine is designed for mining terrain against enemy personnel. She

consists of a combat element, a glass, an ejection device and a stabilizer block. Mine body

metal.

Mine weight, kg - 1.16

Overall dimensions of the mine, mm

diameter - 63

height - 180

Number of target sensors, pcs - 4

Target sensor thread length, m - 10

Actuation force, kgf - 0.3

Radius of continuous damage, m - 16

Long-range cocking time, s - 50

Installation method - PKM, VSM-1, UMP, ASM

Engineering weapons. Russian mining equipment and

demining

KPOM-2 cassette with POM-2 anti-personnel fragmentation mines.

The KPOM-2 cassette is designed for installation of POM-2 anti-personnel mines using a mining system

VSM-1, universal minelayer UMZ or portable mining kit PKM. On cassette

a block with four mines, an expelling charge and an EKV-30 electric capsule sleeve are placed. Cassette closed

lid and sealed.

The electric capsule bushing, when a current pulse is applied to it, ignites the charge. When the kicker is triggered

charge block with mines is fired from a cassette. After the block opens and the mines fall onto the ground, the fuses

The mines are put into firing position.

Main tactical and technical characteristics:

Number of mines in the cassette, pcs - 4

Mine weight, kg - 1.6

Mass of explosive, kg - 0.14

Mass of cassette with mines, kg - 9.6

Weight of packaging with cassettes, kg - 48

Overall dimensions of the mine, mm - 180x63

Radius of continuous destruction of the mine, m - 16

Self-destruction time, h - 4-100

Engineering weapons. Russian mining equipment and

demining

KSF-1S cassette with PFM-1S anti-personnel high-explosive mines.

The KSF-1S cassette is designed for storage, transportation and installation of helicopter minefields

mining system VSM-1 and portable mining kit PKM. It consists of a glass with

an EKV-30M electric capsule sleeve screwed into it, inside of which an expelling powder charge is placed,

piston, separating charge.

When an electrical impulse is applied to the electrocapsule sleeve, the expelling charge and blocks with

mines are fired from a cassette. After the blocks are opened and the mines fall onto the ground, the mine fuses

are transferred to a combat position.

Main tactical and technical characteristics:

Number of mines in the cassette, pcs - 64

Mine weight, kg - 0.08

Mass of explosive, kg - 0.04

Mass of cassette with mines, kg - 9.2

Overall dimensions of the mine, mm - 119x64x20

Overall dimensions of the cassette, mm - 480x140

Overall dimensions of the package, mm - 729x429x400

Self-destruction time, h - 1-40

Number of cassettes per package, pcs - 4

Guaranteed shelf life, years - 10

Engineering weapons. Russian mining equipment and

demining

Anti-personnel mine MON-200.

Anti-personnel fragmentation mine MON-200 directed destruction is intended for mining

and the front wall contains 900 ready-made cylindrical fragments in one row. Between the partition

And back wall- explosive charge. Anti-personnel fragmentation mine MON-200 using

aiming direction.

Main tactical and technical characteristics:

Mine weight, kg - 25

Mass of explosive, kg - 12

Overall dimensions of the mine, mm

diameter - 434

height - 130

Number of fragments, pcs - 900

Width of the continuous damage zone at a distance of 200 meters, m - 10.5-14.5

Explosive means - EDP-r

Installation method - manually

Engineering weapons. Russian mining equipment and

demining

Anti-personnel mine MON-100.

Anti-personnel fragmentation mine MON-100 directed destruction is intended for mining

terrain against enemy personnel. It consists of a body equipped with an explosive charge

substances and finished fragments. The mine body is stamped from sheet steel. Front and back walls

have a conical shape and are connected by seaming. In the center of the front wall there is a threaded pilot

socket for electric detonator. The volume inside the case is divided into two parts by a partition. Between the partition

and the front wall contains 400 ready-made cylindrical fragments in one row. Between the partition

and the back wall - an explosive charge. Anti-personnel fragmentation mine MON-100 using

devices are installed in in the right place and aims at the intended target. When an impulse is given

current flowing through the wires, an electric detonator explodes and causes a mine to explode, while fragments fly into

aiming direction.

Main tactical and technical characteristics:

Mine weight, kg - 5

Mass of explosive, kg - 2

Overall dimensions of the mine, mm

diameter - 236

height - 82.5

Number of fragments, pcs - 400

Width of the continuous damage zone at a distance of 100 meters, m - 6.5-9.5

Explosive means - EDP-r

Installation method - manually

explosives and finished fragments.

Main tactical and technical characteristics:

Mine weight, kg - 12.1

Mass of explosive, kg - 6.2

Overall dimensions of the mine, mm

length - 345

width - 153

height - 202

Number of fragments, pcs - 2000

Width of the continuous damage zone at a distance of 90 meters, m - 60

Explosive means:

in a stand-alone version - fuses MVE-92, MVE-NS

Installation method - manually

Engineering weapons. Russian mining equipment and

demining

Anti-personnel mine MON-50.

terrain against enemy personnel. It consists of a plastic case equipped with a charge

explosives and finished fragments. The kit includes: mine MON-50 incomplete

equipped, electric detonator EDP-r (EDP) or fuse MD-5M, clamp, box for explosives, two

bushings for fastening the EAF in the socket and a carrying bag.

Main tactical and technical characteristics:

Mine weight, kg - 2

Mass of explosive, kg - 0.7

Overall dimensions of the mine, mm

length - 226

width - 66

height - 155

Number of fragments, pcs - 485

Width of the continuous destruction zone at a distance of 50 meters, m - 45

Explosive means:

in a controlled version - electric detonators EDP, EDP-r

in an autonomous version - fuses MVE-72, MVE-NS, VZD-3M

Installation method - manually

Engineering weapons. Russian mining equipment and

demining

Anti-personnel fragmentation mine OZM-72.

Anti-personnel fragmentation jumping mine OZM-72 all-round destruction is designed for

mining the area against enemy personnel. It consists of a guide glass, steel

housing, explosive charge, expelling charge and impact mechanism. The kit includes:

partially loaded mine, MUV-3 or MUV-4 fuse, detonator cap, cable with carbine, two

guy wires, a pinning mechanism and a nylon tape 0.8 meters long.

Main tactical and technical characteristics:

Mine weight, kg - 5

Mass of explosive, kg - 0.66

Mass of expelling charge (black powder), kg - 0.007

Overall dimensions of the mine, mm

diameter - 108

height (without fuse) - 172

Height of the gap above the ground surface, m - 0.6-0.9

Number of finished fragments, pcs - 2400

Radius of continuous damage, m - 25

Fuse type - contact mechanical (MUV-3, MUV-4) or electromechanical MVE-72, MVE-NS

Installation method - manually

Engineering weapons. Russian mining equipment and

demining

Anti-personnel high-explosive mine PMN-4.

The PMN-4 anti-personnel high-explosive mine is designed for mining areas against manpower.

enemy. It consists of a plastic housing, an explosive charge, a pressure sensor and

built-in fuse with a hydromechanical long-range cocking mechanism.

Main tactical and technical characteristics:

Mine weight, kg - 0.3

Mass of explosive, kg - 0.05

Weight of package with mines, kg - 28

Overall dimensions of the mine, mm

diameter - 95

height - 42

Actuation force, kgf - 5-15

Long-range cocking time, s - 60-2400

Damaging effect - breaks the foot of a person's leg

Installation method - manually

Engineering weapons. Russian mining equipment and

demining

Anti-personnel high-explosive mine PMN-2.

The PMN-2 anti-personnel high-explosive mine is designed for mining terrain against manpower.