Time and place of origin of Judaism

Federal Agency for Education

Russian State University named after. I. Kant

Faculty of History

TEST

ON THE COURSE “HISTORY OF RELIGIONS”

JUDAISM: ORIGIN AND FEATURES

Second year students

OSP "Culturology"

Part-time study

Kataeva T. O.

Kaliningrad

INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………………………………3

ORIGIN AND STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT………………………………….4

The era of the First Temple…………………………………………………........5

Pentateuch (Torah)……………………………………………………….7

Second Temple era………………………………………………………9

FEATURES OF THE TEACHING. THE IDEA OF ONE GOD………………………11

HOLIDAYS FASTS………………………………………………………12

CONCLUSION……………………………………………………………14

REFERENCES………………………………………………………15

INTRODUCTION

Judaism (from other Hebrew yahudut - inhabitants of ancient Judea), the earliest monotheistic religion that arose in the 1st millennium BC. e. in Palestine. A characteristic feature of Judaism, which distinguishes it from the national religions of other peoples, is monotheism - the belief in One God. On the basis of Judaism, two world religions arose: Christianity and Islam. The Jewish religion is one of the most vibrant cultural traditions. Adherents of Judaism believe in Yahweh (the one God, creator and ruler of the Universe), the immortality of the soul, the afterlife, the coming coming of the Messiah, God's chosenness of the Jewish people (the idea of ​​a "covenant", a union, an agreement between the people and God, in which the people act as the bearer of divine revelation) .

Judaism is not just the religion of the Jewish people, but a set of laws that regulates not only the religious, ethical and ideological, but also almost all aspects of the life of adherents of this teaching. Judaism defines 613 mitzvot (248 commandments and 365 prohibitions. Among mitzvot the so-called Ten Commandments, containing universal ethical standards of human behavior: monotheism, the prohibition on the image of God, on pronouncing His name in vain (in vain), observing the sanctity of the day of rest on the seventh day (Saturday), honoring parents, the prohibition of murder, adultery, theft, false witness and selfish lust. Deviation from fulfilling the commandments, as a consequence of the principle of free will, is considered a sin that entails retribution not only in the other world, but also in earthly life. Also, of all rules, there are seven, mandatory for all people: the prohibition of blasphemy, the prohibition of bloodshed, the prohibition of theft, the prohibition of debauchery, the prohibition of cruelty towards animals, the commandment of justice in court and the equality of man before the law. The canon of the sacred books of Judaism includes the Torah (“Pentateuch of Moses”), the books of the prophets, etc. Various interpretations and commentaries of the canon are collected in the Talmud. Mystical teachings (kabala, Hasidism) became widespread in Judaism.

Starting to form as a religion, Judaism began to develop as a religion not associated with any territory. A characteristic feature of Judaism is isolation along national lines. One state means one religion; people who refused and did not enter this system were considered as some kind of danger.

Judaism is classified as a family of "monotheistic" religions, just like Christianity and Islam. All three religions have much in common, both in terms of geography of origin and theological system. The Hebrew Bible has become the most influential book in human history: Jews and Christians rank it among their most important religious texts. It also has a lot in common with the Koran. Some of its central ideas are about the existence of One God, one universal moral code, that people should care for the poor, widows, orphans and travelers, that Jews are God's chosen people.

ORIGIN AND STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT

The ideas of the ancient Jews about the One God developed over a long historical period (19th - 2nd centuries BC), which was called biblical and included the era patriarchs(forefathers) of the Jewish people. As legend tells, the very first Jew was the patriarch Abraham, who entered into a sacred union with God - a “covenant”. Abraham made a promise that he and his descendants would remain faithful to God and fulfill the commandments as proof of this ( mitzvot). For this, God promised Abraham to protect and multiply his descendants, from which a whole nation would emerge. This people will receive from God the possession of Israel - the land on which they will create their own state. The descendants of Abraham formed a union of 12 tribes (tribal groups), related by blood, which descended from the 12 sons of Jacob (Israel).

But before receiving the land promised by God (“the promised land”), the descendants of Abraham ended up in Egypt (about 1700 BC), where they were enslaved for 400 years. The prophet Moses brought them out of this slavery ( Moshe). This was followed by a 40-year wandering in the desert, during which all former slaves had to die so that only free people would enter the land of Israel. During this wandering through the desert, the central event of Judaism and its entire history occurs: God calls Moses to Mount Sinai and through him gives the entire Jewish people the Ten Commandments and the Torah . This marks the beginning of the existence of Jews as a single people, and Judaism - the religion that this people professes. The God of the Jews, called by the name Yahweh (“He who is”, from whose existence everything flows), had neither images nor temples.

In the 13th century BC BC, when the Israelite tribes came to Palestine, their religion was a variety of primitive cults, common to nomads. Only gradually did the Israelite religion emerge - Judaism, as it is presented in the Old Testament. In early cults, trees, springs, stars, stones, and animals were deified.

Traces of totemism are easy to see in the Bible when it comes to various animals, but above all - about snake and about bull. There were cults of the dead and ancestors. Yahweh was originally a deity of the southern tribes. This ancient Semitic deity was imagined with wings, flying between the clouds and appearing in thunderstorms, lightning, whirlwinds, and fire. Yahweh became the patron of the tribal alliance created for the conquest of Palestine, revered by all twelve tribes and symbolizing the power that binds them. The former gods were partially rejected, partially merged in the image of Yahweh (Jehovah is a later liturgical rendering of this name). The substantive side of the religious ideas of the era of the patriarchs can be restored only in the most general terms. The religion of the patriarchs is based on the idea that the head of the clan has the right to choose any name he likes for the god of his fathers, with whom he establishes a special personal connection, a kind of alliance or covenant.

First Temple era

In the 11th century BC e. Jews create the state of Israel, the capital of which becomes the city of Jerusalem (Yerushalayim). In 958 BC. e. King Solomon builds a Temple in honor of the One God in Jerusalem on Mount Zion. A new beginning has begun in the history of Judaism, temple period, which lasted about 1500 years. During this period, the Jerusalem Temple became the main spiritual center of Judaism. The servants of the Jerusalem Temple constituted a special category of Jewish society. Their descendants still perform special ritual functions and observe additional prohibitions: marrying a widow or divorcee, etc.

During the same period, writing is completed Tanakh- The Holy Scriptures of Judaism (the Christian tradition completely included the Tanakh in the section of the Bible called the Old Testament). The king not only controlled the functioning of the Temple, but also made decisions on issues of a purely cultic nature. The possibility of intervention in the sphere of worship was rooted in the idea of ​​the king being chosen by God, which turned him into a sacred person. The rise of the Jerusalem Temple and its transformation into an official sanctuary undermined the prestige of local sanctuaries and contributed to the centralization of religious authority.

In 587 BC. e. Israel was captured by the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar II, who destroyed the Temple of Jerusalem and forcibly resettled most of the Jews to Babylonia. The prophet Ezekiel becomes the spiritual leader and mentor of the settlers. He developed the idea of ​​​​the revival of Israel, but as a theocratic state, the center of which would be the new Jerusalem Temple.

What is new in religious history, characteristic of Judaism, its distinctive feature is the understanding of the relationship between God and his “chosen people” Israel as a relationship of “alliance.” The union is a kind of agreement: the people of Israel enjoy the special protection of almighty God, they are the “chosen people”, provided that they remain faithful, that they follow the commandments of God and, most importantly, do not deviate from monotheism. The peculiarity of Judaism is that God acts in the history of his people. A kind of constitution of this allied relationship between Israel and its god is the Law, in which Yahweh expressed his will. Along with the revelation of God in nature and history, the Law stands above all, in which the will of the Lord is clearly and clearly formulated in the form of “commandments.” Faith in the Messiah in the predictions of the prophets becomes the basis of Judaism: the Messiah will establish a kingdom where there will be no hostility and suffering, where the faithful God will find peace and happiness, and sins will be punished, the Last Judgment will be carried out. Judaism as a “religion of the law” was faced with a tendency that manifested itself in the fact that the Law was turning into something self-sufficient, so that even Yahweh retreated into the shadows. The law, as it were, became isolated from man, turned into something with its own logic of development, so that its requirements turned into a confusing set of contradictory instructions; serving God became tantamount to fulfilling the letter of the Law, not spiritualized by the participation of the “heart.” Religion was thus reduced in Israel to purely external worship, which was based on the confidence in receiving a “fair” reward from God for performing rituals and following prescribed norms of behavior.

August 31, 2017

The history of the emergence of Judaism speaks for itself, but more on that a little later. Let us first consider the original religion from which Judaism was formed.

The history of the origin of the religion preceding Judaism

First, let's look at the general concept of the word religion.

Religion(lat. religare - to bind, to unite) - a certain system of views, determined by belief in the supernatural, which includes a set of moral norms and types of behavior, rituals, religious activities and the unification of people in organizations (church, umma, sangha, religious community).

Other definitions of religion:

one of the forms of social consciousness; a set of spiritual ideas based on belief in supernatural forces and beings (deities, spirits) that are the subject of worship.

organized worship of higher powers. Religion not only represents belief in the existence of higher powers, but establishes a special relationship with these forces: it is, therefore, a certain activity of the will directed towards these forces.

spiritual formation, a special type of human relationship to the world and to oneself, conditioned by ideas about otherness as the dominant reality in relation to everyday existence.

Also, the term “religion” can be understood in such senses as subjective-personal (religion as an individual “faith”, “religiosity”, etc.) and objective-general (religion as an institutional phenomenon - “creed”, “worship” , “confessions”, etc.).

The religious system of representing the world (worldview) is based on religious faith and is associated with a person’s relationship to the superhuman spiritual world, a certain superhuman reality, about which a person knows something, and towards which he must in some way orient his life. Faith can be strengthened by mystical experience.

Of particular importance for religion are such concepts as good and evil, morality, purpose and meaning of life, etc.

The basic religious beliefs of most world religions are written down by people in sacred texts, which, according to believers, are either dictated or inspired directly by God or gods, or written by people who, from the point of view of each specific religion, have reached the highest spiritual state, great teachers, especially enlightened or dedicated ones, saints, etc.

In most religious communities, the clergy (ministers of religious worship) occupy a prominent place.

Religion is the predominant worldview in most countries of the world; most respondents identify themselves with one of the religions.

In short, religion is the science of deity, which gives an idea of ​​itself through the laws of good and evil.

In our case with Judaism, we are talking about God, who revealed Himself to the Jews through the 10 commandments. For this reason these commandments are called Revelation:

18 And when [God] stopped speaking to Moses on Mount Sinai, he gave him the two tablets of the testimony, tablets of stone, on which was written by the finger of God.

And for this reason the ark where they were kept was called the ark of the testimony:

21 And he brought the ark into the tabernacle, and hung up the veil, and shut the ark of the testimony, as the Lord commanded Moses.

In addition to the fact that the revelation about God in the Ten Commandments was kept in the ark, above the ark the priest received instructions from God, who revealed himself to the priest between the kerubim.

6 And you shall place it before the veil that is before the ark of the testimony, opposite the mercy seat that is on the [ark] of the testimony, where I will reveal myself to you.

7 On it Aaron will burn sweet incense; every morning, when he prepares the lamps, he will smoke with them;

So, the religion of the Jews focuses on God, who revealed himself through Revelation - the 10 Commandments. We will not dwell on the meaning of these commandments, because this is a separate topic.

What you should pay attention to is that this religion was not Jewish. This religion can be called the religion of Abraham - Abrahamic. It is Abraham who is the founder of this religion and the father of all Jews.

When Moses met God in the desert, where God spoke to him from a burning bush, Moses was told:

6 And he said, I am the God of your father, the God of Abraham, the God of Isaac, and the God of Jacob.

Nowhere in the bible does it speak of the God of Moses, but it always speaks of the God of Abraham. The first father was Abraham, then Isaac, and the last Jacob. From Jacob came twelve tribes, including the tribe of Levi, into which Moses was born.

So, the religion of the Jews was originally an Abrahamic religion.

The history of the emergence of Judaism in the religion of Abraham

The word Judaism itself comes from the name Judah (Yehuda), which is translated as: praise be to Yehovah, glorify Yehovah.

35 And she conceived again and gave birth to a son, and said, “This time I will praise Yahweh.” Therefore she named him Yehuda.

(Bereishit (Genesis) 29)

Division of the Sons of Jacob

From Tanakhic history we know that during the reign of the son of Solomon, the children of Israel were divided into two parts. One part consisted of the tribes of Judah and Benjamin. This part was called geographically - Judea. The tribe of Levi was also with them. The other part consisted of the remaining 10 tribes. This part of the people was geographically considered Israel with its capital Samaria.

Subsequently, when the king of Assyria came, he captured the capital of Israel, Samaria, and settled the ten tribes as slaves in his lands. Thus, Israel ceased to exist.

Judah remained with its capital Jerusalem until the king of Babylon captured the city. The people were taken into captivity for 70 years. But according to the prophecies, after 70 years the people returned and restored the city and the Temple, settling the lands of Judea.

Judaism in the time of Jesus Christ

At the time of Jesus Christ, the dominant tribe were the Jews - representatives of the tribe of Judah. A small part remained of the tribe of Benjamin, as well as of the tribe of Levi. For this reason, all Jews were called Jews - inhabitants of Judea. And this is precisely the fundamental reason for the formation of the Judaic religion, which was formed by the Pharisees of that time.

Modern Judaism

Modern Judaism (Orthodox) is still the same teaching of the Pharisees, reformed to some extent under the influence of European culture.

Abrahamic Religion Today

Although the Pharisaic teaching was deformed even in the time of Christ and later, the Abrahamic religion, which was not subject to the intervention of human cults, has survived to this day in the form of separate religious Jewish groups, including messianic ones (not mixed with Christianity). Representatives of the Abrahamic religion preserved in the correct light the teaching about the God of the Jews - Yehovah' and about His commandments.

Mira. It was formed in the 1st century BC in ancient Judea. The history of belief is directly related to the Jewish people and their rich history, as well as the development of the nation’s statehood and the life of its representatives in the diaspora.

The essence

Those who profess this faith call themselves Jews. Some followers claim that their religion dates back to the time of Adam and Eve in Palestine. Others believe that Judaism is a faith founded by a small group of nomads. Among them was Abraham, who made a covenant with God that became the fundamental tenet of religion. In accordance with this document, which is known to us as the commandments, people were obliged to observe the rules of pious life. In return, they received the protection of the Almighty.

The main sources for the study of Judaism are the Old Testament and the Bible in general. Religion recognizes only three types of books: prophetic, historical and Torah - publications interpreting the law. And also the sacred Talmud, consisting of two books: the Mishnah and the Gemara. By the way, it regulates all aspects of life, including morality, ethics and even jurisprudence: civil and criminal law. Reading the Talmud is a sacred and responsible mission, which only Jews are allowed to engage in.

Differences

The main feature of the religion is that God in Judaism has no form. In other ancient Eastern religions, the Almighty was often depicted either in the form of a man or in the likeness of a beast. People tried to rationalize natural and spiritual matters, to make them as understandable as possible for mere mortals. But Jews who read the Bible call this idolatry, since the main book of the Jews strictly condemns servility to icons, statues or images.

As for Christianity, there are two main differences. First, God in Judaism did not have a son. Christ, in their opinion, was an ordinary mortal man, a preacher of morality and pious word, the last prophet. Secondly, it is national. That is, a citizen of the country automatically becomes a Jew, without having the right to subsequently adopt another religion. in our time - a relic. It was only in ancient times that this phenomenon flourished. Today, it is revered only by Jews, while preserving the identity and originality of the people.

Prophets

In Judaism, this is a person who brings the will of God to the masses. With its help, the Almighty teaches the people the commandments: people improve, improve their lives and future, develop morally and spiritually. Who will be a prophet is decided by God himself, says Judaism. Religion does not exclude that the choice may fall on a mortal who absolutely does not want to take on such an important mission. And he gives the example of Jonah, who even tried to flee to the ends of the world from the sacred duties entrusted to him.

In addition to morality and spirituality, the prophets also had the gift of clairvoyance. They predicted the future, gave valuable advice on behalf of the Almighty, treated for various diseases and even took part in the political life of the country. For example, Ahijah was the personal adviser to Jeroboam, the founder of the kingdom of Israel, Elisha contributed to the change of the dynasty, Daniel himself headed the state. The teachings of the early prophets are included in the books of the Tanakh, and the teachings of the later ones are published in separate copies. Interestingly, the preachers, unlike representatives of other ancient religions, believed in the advent of a “golden age”, when all peoples would live in peace and prosperity.

Currents in Judaism

Over the long centuries of its existence, religion has undergone many transformations and modifications. As a result, its representatives were divided into two camps: the reformists. The former religiously adhere to the traditions of their ancestors and do not introduce innovations into beliefs and its canons. The latter, on the contrary, welcome liberal trends. Reformists accept marriages between Jews and representatives of other religions, same-sex love and the work of women as rabbis. Orthodox Christians primarily live in most of modern Israel. Reformists - in the USA and Europe.

Conservative Judaism became an attempt at a compromise between the two warring camps. Religion, which resulted in two currents, found a middle ground precisely in this synthesis of innovation and tradition. Conservatives limited themselves to the introduction of organ music and sermons in the language of the country of residence. Instead, they left such important rituals as circumcision, keeping the Sabbath, and kash-rut intact. Wherever Judaism is practiced, in Russia, the United States or in European powers, all Jews observe a clear hierarchy, submitting to their elders in spiritual position.

Commandments

They are saints for Jews. Representatives of this people are confident that in times of numerous persecutions and bullying, the nation survived and preserved its identity only by observing the canons and rules. Therefore, even today one cannot go against them, even if one’s own life is at stake. Interestingly, the principle “the law of the land is the law” was formed back in the 3rd century BC. According to it, the rules of the state are binding on all citizens without exception. Jews are also obliged to be as loyal as possible to the highest echelons of power; dissatisfaction is only allowed to be expressed regarding religious and family life.

Keeping the Ten Commandments received by Moses on Mount Sinai is the essence of Judaism. And the main one among them is the observance of the Sabbath holiday (“Shabbat”). This day is special, it should definitely be devoted to rest and prayer. On Saturdays you cannot work or travel, even cooking is prohibited. And so that people do not sit hungry, they are ordered to do the first one on Friday evening - for several days in advance.

About the world and man

Judaism is a religion based on the legend of the creation of the planet by God. According to it, he created the earth from the water surface, spending six days on this important mission. Thus, the world and all creatures living in it are God's creations. As for a person, there are always two principles in his soul: good and evil, which are in constant opposition. The dark demon inclines him to earthly pleasures, the light one - to doing good deeds and spiritual development. The struggle began to manifest itself in the form of individual behavior.

As already mentioned, followers of Judaism believe not only in the beginning of the existence of the world, but also in its peculiar end - the “golden era”. Its founder will be King Moshiach, aka the Messiah, who will rule the people until the end of time and bring them prosperity and liberation. In every generation there is a potential contender, but only a true descendant of David, who steadfastly keeps the commandments and is pure in soul and heart, is destined to become a full-fledged Messiah.

About marriage and family

They were given the most importance. A person is obliged to start a family; not having one is considered blasphemy and even a sin. Judaism is a faith in which sterility is the worst punishment for a mortal. A man can divorce his wife if after 10 years of marriage she has not given birth to his first child. The legacy of religion is preserved in the family; even during periods of persecution, each unit of Jewish society must observe the rituals and traditions of its people.

The husband is obliged to provide his wife with everything necessary: ​​housing, food, clothing. His duty is to ransom her in case of capture, bury her with dignity, care for her during illness, and provide her with a means of subsistence if the woman remains a widow. The same applied to common children: they should not need anything. Sons - until they come of age, daughters - until they become engaged. Instead, the man, as the head of the family, has the right to the income of his other half, her property and valuables. He can inherit his wife's fortune and use the results of her labor for his own purposes. After his death, the husband's elder brother is obliged to marry the widow, but only if the marriage is childless.

Children

The father also has many responsibilities to his heirs. He must initiate his son into the subtleties of faith that the holy book preaches. Judaism is based on the Torah, which is studied by a child under the guidance of a parent. With its help, the boy also masters his chosen craft, and the girl receives a good dowry. Little Jews respect their parents very much, follow their instructions and never contradict them.

Until the age of 5, the mother is involved in the religious education of children. She teaches kids basic prayers and commandments. Afterwards they are sent to school at the synagogue, where they master all the biblical wisdom. Training takes place after main lessons or on Sunday mornings. The so-called religious coming of age occurs for boys at 13 years old, for girls at 12. On this occasion, various family holidays are organized, which symbolize a person’s entry into adulthood. From now on, young creatures must constantly attend the synagogue and lead a pious lifestyle, as well as continue further deep study of the Torah.

Major holidays of Judaism

The main one is Passover, which Jews celebrate in the spring. The history of its origin is closely connected with the period of the Exodus from Egypt. In memory of those events, Jews eat bread made from water and flour - matzo. During the persecution, people did not have time to prepare full-fledged flatbreads, so they were content with their Lenten counterpart. They also have bitter greens on the table - a symbol of Egyptian enslavement.

During the period of the Exodus, they also began to celebrate the New Year - Rosh Hashanah. It is a September holiday that proclaims God's kingdom. It is on this day that the Lord judges humanity and lays the foundations for the events that will happen to the people in the coming year. Sukkot is another important autumn date. During the holiday, Jews, glorifying the Almighty, live for seven days in temporary sukkah buildings covered with branches.

Hanukkah is also a big event for Judaism. The holiday is a symbol of the victory of good over evil, light over darkness. It arose as a memory of the eight miracles that occurred during the rebellion against Greco-Syrian rule. In addition to these main memorial dates, Jews also celebrate Tu Bishvat, Yom Kippur, Shavuot and others.

Food restrictions

Judaism, Christianity, Islam, Buddhism, Confucianism - each religion has its own characteristic features, some of which extend to cooking. Thus, Jews are not allowed to eat “unclean” foods: the meat of pigs, horses, camels and hares. They also prohibit oysters, shrimp and other marine life. Proper food in Judaism is called kosher.

It is interesting that religion prohibits not only some products, but also their combination. For example, dairy and meat dishes are taboo. The rule is strictly observed in all restaurants, bars, cafes and canteens in Israel. To ensure that these dishes are as far away from each other as possible, they are served in these establishments through different windows and prepared in separate dishes.

Many Jews revere it not only because this rule is written in the Torah, but also for the sake of improving the health of their own body. After all, this nutritional plan has been approved by many nutritionists. But here we can argue: if pork is not so healthy, then what the seafood is guilty of is unknown.

Other Features

The culture of Judaism is rich in unusual traditions that are incomprehensible to representatives of other faiths. For example, this applies to circumcision of the foreskin. The ceremony is carried out already on the eighth day of a newborn boy’s life. Once fully grown, he is also required to grow a beard and sideburns, like a true Jew. Long clothes and a covered head are another unspoken rule of the Jewish community. Moreover, the cap does not come off even during sleep.

A believer is obliged to honor all religious holidays. He must not offend or insult his fellow men. Children at school learn the basics of their religion: its principles, traditions, history. This is one of the main differences between Judaism and other religions. We can say that babies absorb the love of religion with their mother’s milk; their piety is literally passed on through their genes. This is probably why the people not only survived the times of mass destruction, but also managed to become a full-fledged, free and independent nation that lives and thrives on its own fertile land.

Judaism is one of the most ancient religions. Its origins go back to the 2nd millennium BC. e. It was finally formed in the 1st millennium BC. e.

In the 2nd millennium BC. e. in the north of the Arabian Peninsula lived Jewish tribes who led a nomadic lifestyle. Their main occupation was cattle breeding. They professed primitive polytheistic beliefs.

Since the XV-XIV centuries. BC e. Jewish tribes begin to conquer the agricultural regions of Palestine and settle on the conquered lands. Gradually, primitive communal relations are replaced by slaveholding ones. Around the 10th century. BC e. The Jews develop a slave state, which soon splits into two kingdoms - Israel and Judea. At this time, the Jewish religion itself began to take shape.

Originally the Jews had many gods. The main gods of a particular tribe played a special role. The gradual rise of the tribe of Judah led to the fact that from the many Hebrew gods, the main god of the tribe, Yahweh, stood out, who became the main god of all Jews, and then their only god. Of great importance in this process was the construction of a temple in Jerusalem in honor of Yahweh, which became the center of the Jewish religion.

In the 1st millennium BC. e. The main religious document of Judaism is created - the Torah, which included the first five biblical books: Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers and Deuteronomy. The text of the Torah was created over a long period of time, from the 13th to the 5th century. BC e. The content of the Torah is based on the traditions of both the Jewish people and the myths of the Assyro-Bylonians, Egyptians, Phoenicians and other peoples of the East. During the 5th-1st centuries. BC e. The Torah was supplemented by other “holy books”, which together with the Torah made up the first part of the Bible - the Old Testament.

The Old Testament is the ideological basis of the Jewish religion. The Old Testament books tell about God’s creation of man and the world and about the life of the first people - Adam and Eve in paradise, about their famous fall and expulsion from the biblical paradise, about the fate of the descendants of this “first couple”, and then from a religious perspective the history of the Jewish people until our era. The Old Testament biblical books contain the doctrinal principles of the Jewish religion, numerous moral and religious instructions that a devout Jew must follow, as well as ritual instructions and prophecies. In addition to purely religious books, the Old Testament includes works that represent literary monuments of the Jewish people.

In the VII-VI centuries. BC e. The settlement of Jews outside Palestine begins, caused by the Assyrian and Babylonian conquests. It especially intensified during the period of Roman rule and after the suppression of Jewish uprisings against Rome in the 1st and 2nd centuries. n. e.

Being in dispersion (diaspora), Jews are deprived of the opportunity to visit their religious center - the Jerusalem Temple, which in 70 AD. e. was destroyed by the Romans. Therefore, they begin to gather in local congregations - synagogues. The leadership role in synagogues gradually passes to rabbis - religious mentors who enjoyed the authority of experts in the “holy scriptures”. The rabbis were engaged in the interpretation of the Torah and other books of the Old Testament in relation to new historical conditions. The result of this rabbinic activity was the Talmud, compiled in IVb. BC e.-V century n. e. The Talmud is a collection of various instructions in the faith, religious, legal and ethical norms, ritual rules, etc. Gradually, the Talmud turned into a document regulating the life of Jewish communities and regulating to the smallest detail the life of every Jewish believer.

In the Jewish dispersion, a number of sects emerged that reflected the class heterogeneity of Jewish society in religious form. Thus, the Sadducees sect expressed the interests of the clergy and the top of Jewish society, the Pharisees sect - the interests of the middle social strata, and the Yesens, or Essens, sect - the poor.

Judaism arose in the 2nd millennium BC. based on the polytheistic rituals of the nomadic Jewish tribes of Northern Arabia, and after the conquest of Palestine in the 13th century. absorbed the religious ideas of local agricultural peoples.

The most ancient period: the origin of beliefs and archaic cults.

Archaic cults in Judaism include:

Family cults.

Funeral cult.

Cattle breeding cult.

Numerous taboos.

The veneration of the spirits of ancestors testifies to ancestral cults. Thus, the book of Genesis describes how one of Jacob’s wives stole her father’s idols during her flight. Idols (teraphim) were tribal patrons. The father was angry not so much for the flight of his daughters and son-in-law, but for the kidnapping, he caught up and demanded the return of the idols. In the Book of Kings, David says, “We have a kindred sacrifice in our city.” Also, tribal cults can be traced in legends about patriarchs; their images are considered as the personification of tribal divisions. In ancient times, religious honors were given to ancestors.

The funeral cult of the ancient Jews was simple. The dead were buried in the ground. Ideas about the afterlife were very vague. There was no belief in retribution after death: God punished people for their sins in this life, or their offspring. There are episodes in the Bible in which God punishes the guilt of fathers in children up to the third and fourth generation. They believed in the ability to summon the shadows (souls) of the dead and talk with them, for example, King Saul ordered the sorceress to summon the shadow of the deceased Samuel.

The origin of Easter (Passover), which is believed to have a totemistic origin and was originally dedicated to the spring sacrifice of the first offspring of the herd, is associated with the pastoral cult (Passover later became associated with the exodus of the Jews from Egypt). Also, the nomadic lifestyle of the ancient Jews reflects the mythical image of Azazel, to whom they sacrificed a goat (“scapegoat”) - they drove him alive into the desert, placing all the sins of the people on his head (atonement sacrifice). In the nomadic era, there was also a lunar cult, with which the celebration of Saturday, which originates from the full moon holiday, is associated.

The Jewish religion is characterized by many prohibitions (taboos) related to food and sex life, which are seen as a reflection of ancient cults. For example, the ban on eating the meat of certain animals (pork, camel, hare, jerboa and some birds) has existed since nomadic times, as well as the ban on eating blood, which was considered the soul of the body. The rite of circumcision arose from initiations - initiations into adulthood. It represented the sanctification of marriage, and later came to be seen as a sign of the covenant.

Moses and the Exodus to Israel

The actual emergence of Judaism as a religion is usually associated with the name of Moses (hence one of the names of this religion - mosaic), as well as Yahweh - the central figures of the entire religion. The origin of Yahweh is controversial: some researchers believe that initially it was a totem, a thunder god, the personification of the desert, etc. At first, Yahweh was the god of only the Jews (the Levite tribe), and then became the national god of all Hebrew-Israelites. At the same time, the existence of other gods was not excluded: each people had its own patron god (henotheism).

The formation of the image of Yahweh and his cult took place during the conquest of Palestine. Yahweh acts primarily as a warrior and leader in the fight against all enemies (Sabaoth is the god of armies). He helped in battles and ordered the conquest of Palestine. Its characteristic features at this time are mercilessness, bloodthirstiness and cruelty: “they killed everything that breathed,” “for it was from the Lord that they hardened their hearts,” “they were destroyed as the Lord commanded Moses,” etc. Yahweh gave Moses laws - commandments (Exodus 20.1-17), which represent the ethical code of the Jews. These same commandments form the basis of Christian commandments.

Formation of the concepts of monotheism and God's chosenness in the Palestinian and post-exilic periods

The conquest of Palestine led to a change in the entire life of the ancient Jews - from nomadic to settled - and religion. At this time, statehood is being formalized. Mixing with the locals led to the veneration of local Vaal deities (community and city patrons). Yahweh was revered, but although Solomon in the 10th century. BC and built a luxurious temple in Jerusalem; there was no centralization of the cult yet. Agricultural cults and holidays entered the life of the Jews: Mazzot (the spring holiday of unleavened bread, which merged with the cattle-breeding Passover), Shebbuot - Pentecost (the holiday of the wheat harvest), Sukkot (the holiday of Tabernacles in honor of the harvest of fruits, etc.).

The entire cult was concentrated in the hands of a separate and hereditary group of priests from the Levites. There were also wizards and fortune tellers (mentioned in the Bible). A special role was played by the Nazirites - people dedicated or dedicated to God. They observed strict rules of ritual purity: they limited themselves in food, did not drink wine, did not touch the body of the deceased, and did not cut their hair. They were considered saints, and they were credited with prophetic knowledge and extraordinary abilities. The rules of the Nazirite were set forth in the Book of Numbers of the Bible. Legendary figures, such as Samson, also appear there.

From the 8th century BC Prophets appear among the Jews. Initially, these were fortunetellers with shamanic traits (they went into a frenzy and stripped naked). Over time, the prophets became spokespersons for popular discontent: they acted as denouncers of the sins of the people, advocated for the restoration of the cult of Yahweh, and preached the idea of ​​moral sin, and not ritual sin, as before (Isaiah 1:16-17). Some acted as political publicists and formed opposition to the official temple priesthood.

In 621 BC. King Josiah carried out a religious reform aimed at sharply centralizing the cult. The cult objects of all other gods except Yahweh were removed from the Jerusalem Temple; by order of the king, all the priests-servants of these cults, as well as spellcasters, wizards, etc., were killed, and the Easter holiday was officially restored. With the help of religious centralization, the king sought to achieve political centralization.

However, in 586 BC. Babylonian King Nebuchadnezzar captured Jerusalem and destroyed the Jerusalem Temple. The Jews were subjected to Babylonian captivity for half a century. This also had an impact on religion. The Jews borrowed Babylonian cosmology and mythology: cherubim - from winged bulls (kerubs), biblical characters Mordecai and Esther - from Marduk and Ishtar (the holiday of Purim in honor of salvation), the myth of the creation of the world had Babylonian features, the plot of the Fall was a distorted version of the Babylonian myth about the origin of death, the myth of the flood from the Babylonian myth of Utnapishtim, from Mazdaism - the image of the evil spirit Satan (originally the Jews believed that evil comes from God, as punishment).

In 538 BC. The Jews were returned from captivity by the Persian king Cyrus. The Jerusalem Temple was restored. However, after returning, acute internal contradictions began. The Jerusalem priesthood was used to curb the people. No cult centers were allowed, sacrifices to Yahweh could only be made in Jerusalem, and purification sacrifices were required at every turn. The priesthood was a strictly closed caste.

During this period, the main features of Judaism were formed: strict monotheism (for the first time in history!) and the centralization of the cult, the canonization of the holy books took place. The tribal god Yahweh becomes the one god-creator of the world and almighty. The Bible is edited in the spirit of monotheism (the final edition was created by the 5th century BC). The concept of God's chosenness begins to play an important role, which becomes the basis of consolation instead of the idea of ​​\u200b\u200bretribution after death. Its essence is as follows: if Jews suffer, then they themselves are to blame, because they sin and violate the commandments of God, therefore God punishes them. But despite this, they remain the chosen people. Yahweh will forgive them anyway and exalt them above all the nations on earth. This promoted the separation of Jews from all other peoples, including a ban on marriage.

Thus, in the post-exilic period, 7 main elements of Judaism were formed:

The doctrine of God, the essence of the Universe and man.

The concept of God's chosenness.

Scripture.

A set of religious laws that also covers the area of ​​secular law.

Order of religious ritual.

System of religious institutions.

Code of Moral and Ethical Relations.

The period of diaspora and the formation of sects.

In the Hellenistic era (from the end of the 4th century BC), the period of dispersion (diaspora) of Jews throughout the ancient world began and the formation of a synagogue organization took place. A synagogue (from the Greek gathering, meeting) is not only a house of prayer, but also the center of public life, as well as the center of government for the Jewish community outside of Judea. The common treasury and property were kept in it, the synagogue was engaged in charity work, prayers and Holy Scripture were read in it, but sacrifices were not made in it, which were made only in the Jerusalem temple. The spread of Jews around the world contributed to overcoming national isolation and limitations. Admirers of Judaism appeared among non-Jews - proselytes.

The translation of the Bible into Greek - the Septuagint (III-II centuries BC) was of great importance. This contributed to the rapprochement of Hellenistic religious philosophy and Judaism and the emergence of syncretic religious-idealistic systems, one of which was created by Philo of Alexandria (10s of the 1st century BC - 40s of the 1st century AD) - Judeo-Hellenistic philosopher, theologian and exegete.

Philo, brought up in Hellenic culture, saw the truths of Greek philosophy behind the text of the Pentateuch. His philosophical system is theocentric. God is seen as a true being. He strictly distinguishes between the essence of God and his existence, and in this regard develops both negative (apophatic) and positive theology: every person can conclude that there is a Creator God from contemplation of the order of the natural world; but the knowledge of the divine essence lies beyond the limits of the human mind. In His essence, God is unknowable, unnameable, indefinable and inexpressible. According to Philo, the highest Deity is Jehovah of the Pentateuch of Moses - the absolutely transcendental “Existing God” to the world, above the Good, the One (or Monad). While remaining transcendent, God is connected to the cosmos as its creator and providential ruler. According to Philo, the two main names of Jehovah - “God” and “Lord” - indicate two corresponding powers: the first denotes his creative power, the second his power. The doctrine of the divine logos is intended to explain how God is connected with everything that is not himself. Together with Sophia (“the mother of all things”) and Justice, the transcendental God gives birth to the Son and his most perfect creation - the Logos-Word, which is the “tool” of God’s creative thought, the “place” where ideas are located. It is the Logos-Word that creates the spiritual and material world and man; thanks to its activity, ideas-logoi create the world. Man is created in the image and likeness of God, and this means that he is intelligent. The goal of earthly human life is considered by Philo, in accordance with the famous formula of Plato, as “likening to God,” and this “likening” means “knowledge of God.” However, it is impossible to fully know God, because then likening would turn out to be identification, which is impossible in the case of the creator and his creation. The goal achievable by a person in this life is to become wise. Philo personifies the highest ideal in the image of Moses. The path to the highest ethical ideal of a sage lies through the manifestation of natural (given from God) noble inclinations (“the virtue of Isaac”), education (“the virtue of Abraham”) and ascetic exercise (“the virtue of Jacob”). Philo's views had a huge influence on the formation of Christian philosophy, and above all on the exegetical method and theological views of the first Christian philosophers. judaism talmud religious

The deprivation of Judea of ​​political independence and the establishment of foreign power contributed to the emergence of faith in supernatural help for liberation from oppressors and faith in a Messiah-savior. With the teaching about the Messiah, the teaching about the coming age also appeared - eschatology, about future bliss, another world, where the righteous will receive their well-deserved reward. A vague belief in an afterlife and the resurrection of the dead appears. Under the influence of the study of the prophets, apocalypticism is created.

In the II-I centuries. BC movements and sects appeared in Judaism, the main of which were the Sadducees, Pharisees and Essenes.

The Sadducees included members of the priestly families, as well as the military and agricultural aristocracy. The founder of this trend was Zadok, the high priest during the reign of Solomon. From the end of the 2nd century. BC The Sadducees were the support of the ruling dynasty. They scrupulously adhered to the temple cult, strictly followed religious tradition, observed rituals, but only on the basis of written tradition, rejecting oral teaching. Any attempts at a new interpretation of the “Law” were considered as a protest and an encroachment on their monopoly rights. They sought to concentrate spiritual and temporal power. In their philosophical and theological teachings, the Sadducees rejected the predestination of destinies, denied the afterlife and resurrection of the dead, the existence of angels and evil spirits, and taught that in the next century there would be neither eternal bliss nor eternal torment for righteous and wicked people. The Biblical Encyclopedia says about the Sadducees: “The teachings of these materialistic skeptics were not particularly widespread.” After the destruction of the Jerusalem Temple in 70, the Sadducees left the historical arena.

The sect of the Pharisees (from Hebrew “to excommunicate”, “to separate”) arose after the Babylonian captivity. According to one version, the Pharisees in the 2nd century. BC separated from the Hasidim (“pious”), who adhered to national isolation and the requirements of the law. The sect consisted mainly of the middle strata of the population, but, above all, “scientific sages” (professional lawyers). Their total number was quite significant: for example, at the turn of the old and new eras, 6 thousand Pharisees refused to take the oath to the Roman Emperor Augustus. The Pharisees were considered authoritative interpreters of the laws and, unlike the Sadducees, applied their interpretation to new historical conditions. In this regard, they developed a harmonious system of hermeneutics (a method of extracting secret meaning from a text) and logical techniques of deduction and syllogism (a conclusion consisting of two premise judgments, from which a third judgment follows - a conclusion). With the help of these techniques, new laws were derived from the Pentateuch or old ones were modified in relation to new conditions. The Pharisees recognized divine predestination, believed in the immortality of the soul, in angels and spirits, in the resurrection of the dead and in reward after death. They actively participated in political life, and during the period of Roman rule, most of them formed the “peace with Rome” party. Therefore, the word “Pharisee” over time became associated with demagoguery, hypocrisy, and hypocrisy. The Pharisees reached their peak after the destruction of the Jerusalem Temple and operated in synagogues in the Diaspora. They created the first and main part of the Talmud.

The Essenes or Essenes (from Aramais.hasaya - “pious”) existed from the second half of the 2nd century. BC They mainly lived in communities in the area of ​​the western coast of the Dead Sea. They had special principles of social organization: they rejected private property, slavery, and trade. They practiced collective life and common property (not only the cash register was common, but even clothing). They refused to marry and have sex, believing that this would destroy their community, although some recognized marriage as a means of continuing the human race. Admission to community membership occurred only after a special test. The Essenes believed in one god, in the immortality of the soul, but also in the transmigration of souls after death. They considered their main task to be the preservation and elevation of purity of morals and piety. Therefore, they were very religious and led a strict moral life.

There were other, less common sects. Thus, therapists (from the Greek “healing”) considered themselves healers in the service of God, treated the sick, despised sensual pleasures, and preached pacifism. The Zealots (from Greek “zealots”) had similarities in religious views with the Pharisees, but differed from them in their political program - they were characterized by patriotism and an anti-Roman orientation. The Zealots elevated their love of freedom to the level of religious dogma: God is the only ruler of the world, therefore one should not pay taxes to the Roman emperor. The Sicarii (“daggermen”) were a religious-terrorist group that physically destroyed the Romans and pro-Roman Jews.

During the Hellenistic period, the prerequisites for Christianity were formed, which emerged from Judaism and Hellenistic-Roman culture at the beginning of the 1st century AD.

Judaism after the emergence of Christianity.

In 70 AD. after the anti-Roman uprising, the Jerusalem Temple was destroyed, and in 133 Jerusalem was destroyed, and the last remnants of Jewish statehood were destroyed. The Jews were finally expelled from Palestine and settled throughout the Mediterranean. The synagogue becomes the basis of Jewish life. The Talmud is compiled, containing religious, legal, and social regulations. The Talmud becomes the basis for the entire life of Jewish communities - not only religious, but also legal and social. Due to the absence of a state and secular authority, the main role is played by community leaders - talmid hachams, and later rabbis. They were turned to in all cases of life, hence the appearance in Judaism of petty religious prescriptions, the preservation of isolation and isolation of Jews. Rabbis were categorical judges in both the religious and secular affairs of the Jews, who united around the synagogues (synagogue community organization - kahal).

During the Talmudic period, two trends emerged in the development of Judaism - conservative and modernizing. The emergence of new sects was associated with them in the Middle Ages. Thus, the Karaite sect rejected the Talmud and demanded a return to the pure teachings of Moses. Attempts at a rational interpretation of Judaism arose under the influence of Islam. Thus, Moses Maimonides (1135-1204), relying on the teachings of Aristotle and the Muslim rationalists of the Mu'tazilites, tried to interpret the Bible rationally or allegorically. He put forward 13 basic principles of Judaism, trying to free it from petty concerns.

The mystical teaching - Kabbalah (in Heb. Acceptance or tradition) became widespread. The main work Zohar (radiance) appeared in the 13th century. The basis of this doctrine is pantheism: God is an infinite, indefinite being, devoid of any attributes. One can approach God only through the mysterious meaning of names, the letters that make up the names, and the numbers that make up the letters. In this regard, in the practice of Kabbalah, a large place is occupied by the combination of numbers and magical formulas. Supporters of this teaching believe that there is no evil in the world, and evil is the outer shell of good, that is, God. Kabbalists believed in the transmigration of souls: the soul of a sinner is reborn in another body, human or animal, and this continues until the soul is cleansed of sins. After purification, the soul ascends and passes into the realm of pure spirits. Kabbalists cast out unclean spirits from the sick.

In modern times, another movement is spreading - Hasidism (Hasid - pious). Founder Israel Besht. He taught that ritual rules and regulations of rabbis are not needed, but one must strive for direct communication with God, which can be achieved in ecstasy of prayer. Such communication can only be achieved by righteous tzaddikim - keepers of divine secrets.

A rationalist movement also emerged, aimed at weakening religious legislation - the Haskalah. One of the widespread trends in the twentieth century. became Zionism - political Judaism aimed at restoring the Jewish state in Palestine (founder Theodor Herzl).