Sphere of use and environment of use of the language. The vocabulary of the Russian language from the point of view of the sphere of use. Communicative competence of a native speaker

Extra-linguistic factors, the conditions in which the language is used, affect the selection of speech means, the likelihood of using certain lexemes, grammatical forms and structures, i.e. form a system of functional styles.

Language, being a social phenomenon, serves various spheres of human activity and, naturally, it functions differently in different spheres. The functioning of the language depends on: the form of communication (oral / written), the conditions of communication (official / informal / contact), the type of work of consciousness (generalizing - cognitive, cognitive-evaluating, informational-emotional, etc.).

One of the most important extralinguistic factors influencing the use of language is the sphere of communication: the sphere of official business documentation (the sphere of legal regulation of the life of society), the sphere of science and education, the sphere of verbal art, the sphere of socio-political and the sphere of everyday life.

Academician V.V. Vinogradov, along with the sphere of communication, singled out the functions of communication as the determining factor of the functional style: communication, communication, and influence. Functional styles are distinguished and constituted precisely on this extra-linguistic base. Extra-linguistic, or extra-linguistic, style-forming factors of functional styles are those phenomena of extra-linguistic reality in which verbal communication takes place and under the influence of which the selection and organization of linguistic means occurs, i.e. speech acquires its own stylistic characteristics. The use of language by speakers does not occur in a vacuum, but in a certain non-verbal context of a speech act, the factors of which, like the properties of a linguistic personality, affect the style of speech. These factors are very diverse. For education funkts. styles, so-called basic (or primary) factors are especially important. styles are formed under the influence of such E. s. ph., as a sphere of communication associated with one or another type of activity, correlated with the form of consciousness (science, art, politics, law, religion, everyday consciousness in the everyday sphere); the form of thinking (logical-conceptual, figurative, deontic, etc.), the goal of communication is the main one (as opposed to the individual intention of a specific speech act), due to the appointment of these types of activities in society; type of content (usually different in different spheres of communication); functions of language (communicative, aesthetic, expressive, phatic, etc.); typical (basic) communication situation (official / unofficial). Other (conditionally secondary) factors determine the style features, although they are characteristic of one or another function. style, but not essential and therefore found in other styles (usually with modification), but, most importantly, forming features not of a macro style, but of more particular varieties (sub-style, genre, etc.). These are the conditions of communication and forms of speech that are not directly related to the purpose of the very form of consciousness and the corresponding type of activity, but with the implementation of additional communication tasks in some more specific type of activity, the conditions for its "flow", taking into account the identity of the audience; in addition - an interpersonal or mass type of communication, direct or mediated; oral or written form of speech, prepared / unprepared (spontaneous); monologue / dialogical; specific communication situation; a kind of literature; the specifics of the genre; the relationship of speakers; their social role; individual intentions of the speaker (up to the manifestation of the style of his thinking in speech), etc.

These factors determine the style features of speech, as it were, superimposed on the main, macrostyle specificity, otherwise they reveal more specific features of speech (for example, features of the popular science sub-style in the field of scientific speech, as if added to the latter and somewhat transforming it; or genre : article - review - review, etc.). The underlying factors and their corresponding style traits are invariant. Thus, in speech (text) there is, as it were, a hierarchy of style traits that constitutes a unity: secondary factors and style features characterize the internal differentiation of each function. style for substyles, genres, etc. (see Classification and Internal Differentiation of Functional Styles). However, they are interconnected with the primary ones.

The situation is more complicated with the determination of the basic factors of ramp. speech (colloquial-everyday functional style - see), regarding which there are different points of view. But most likely here the basic factors should be recognized as the factors of formality / informality, immediacy / mediation, preparedness / unpreparedness of communication, which, together with goal-setting, determine the type of work of consciousness in this area. For some functions. styles, ex. newspaper-journalistic, the conditions of communication turn out to be essential (for example, the short time frame for the creation of newspaper texts determines the transition of expressive means into standard ones).

The study of extralinguistic factors of communication, their influence on the nature of speech and its stylistic originality was facilitated not only by the development of functions. stylistics, but also sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, linguistic sociopsychology, the theory of speech acts, pragmatics. In this case, it is obviously advisable to distinguish, on the one hand, factors (and their influence on speech) that are consciously realized by the speaker in the process of generating speech (writing a scientific work or newspaper article, etc.), and, on the other hand, factors not dependent on the wishes of the speaker (eg gender, age). It is the first ones that are associated with the concept of style, in particular funkts. style (as a conscious phenomenon).

When defining func. styles and their classification, it is of paramount importance to rely on the type of activity corresponding to one or another form of social consciousness, since the nomination "sphere of communication" is broad and indefinite. On its basis, V.A. Avrorin identifies 12 spheres of communication, and Yu.M. Skrebnev generally believes that there are an infinite number of them. Meanwhile, it was precisely the correlation in the stylistics of the sphere of communication with the indicated extrafactor that made it possible to determine five intuitively perceived functions. styles (usually studied in the stylistics of different countries): scientific, official-business, journalistic, artistic, colloquial and religiously associated with them.

The question of linguistic spheres and their consistent delineation is very important when illuminating the syntagma as an initial speech unit. Speech activity is closely related to both areas - sphere of language as a unified code system of generalized signifiers, abstract schemes, models and sphere of speech, representing a creative, individual use of language means in the process of thinking, communication, assessments, manifestation of will, feelings, their shades, various movements of the soul.

They relate to each other as significant means common to the people, formed as a result of the generalization of centuries-old speech experience (language), and their individual use in the process of thinking and communication based on defined laws, traditions, rules and regulations (speech). Over time, the established system of generalized and abstract linguistic material began to be perceived by people, including many linguists, as the fundamental principle of the linguistic life of the people, although in reality it is a typical code system, which has become a kind of code in the kingdom of speech, the product of speech experience, which develops thanks to the accumulation of this experience.

Language material, on the one hand, seems to be reproduced, for it is universal, but it is used by native speakers in their own way. So what is it individual reproduction, which indicates a subjective generating speech by personal comprehension of the linguistic material and voluntary transfer of it into a special linguistic format - into the speech sphere, with its traditions, characteristics and requirements. At the same time, its semantic quality changes: from the generalized it becomes concrete, situational. In this regard, linguistic units appear in the speech sphere, which, due to the existence of two forms of speech, are divided into units of oral speech and units of written speech.

Thus, the true life of language takes place in speech, in movement. Speech is a tool, material and way of expressing thoughts and feelings. Expressing thoughts, its subject encourages the addressee not only to perceive them, but to actively “create speech. Therefore, one cannot but agree with the opinion of the English linguist A.Kh. Gardiner, who back in the 30s of the last century in his work "The Theory of Language and Speech" called for taking into account the actions of both participants in the speech situation - both the subject of speech and the subject of its perception.

At the moment of perception, someone else's speech gives movement to the associative thinking of the addressee (especially the reader, who at any moment can stop reading in order to comprehend the content and associations and allusions that have arisen in the process of reading). He not only remembers someone else's thought, but thinks it over, critically evaluates, clarifies, develops, correlates with reality. He can re-read a thought, check it for compliance with his idea of ​​it and for the degree of its compliance with the existing situation in science, as well as for the quality of its design. Can try to find a more accurate, in his opinion, her expression.

Articulate coherent speech is generated on the basis of the delimitation of the original speech units. In oral speech, a clear delimitation of intonation is carried out by the subject of speech, thanks to which listeners easily realize the meaning of each expanded speech unit and the general content of speech. Written speech, which the author also composes from the original speech units as a result of their sequential build-up, not only presupposes delimitation, it is simply impossible without the reader's dismemberment (for the purpose of its adequate perception) into the original speech structures from which it was composed. This approach fully corresponds to the logical principle: from which speech units speech is generated, on the basis of these same units it is perceived, because the sequential increase in their meanings creates its content. And the main goal of reading and listening is to understand the subject of speech as accurately as possible.

So delimitation is an essential property of speech, the purpose of which is to highlight and represent all the original units of speech, on the basis of which it is generated and perceived.

For the first time, the Swiss linguist F. de Saussure, who himself did not always follow his thesis, spoke out about the need to distinguish between language and speech. Mixing units of language and speech, he thereby mixed the sphere of language and the sphere of speech. Saussure unconditionally attributed the syntagma to language, although, according to his thesis, it could be both among language units and among speech units. For the sake of fairness, it should be noted that the idea of ​​distinguishing between language and speech was manifested somewhat earlier by A.A. Potebni, who clearly distinguished the meaning of a word in language and in speech. “The meaning of the word, - wrote A.A. Potebnya in the book "Thought and Language" is possible only in speech. The word torn out of connection is dead, does not function, does not reveal either its lexical or even more formal properties, because it does not have them ”.

Language is associated with generalizations and abstractions, while speech is a practical necessity, reality, fundamental principle. It is well known that each child, based on the speech practice of the people around him, first masters speech. He has no idea about the language. And only at a certain stage of his life he consciously turns to language as a nationwide system of linguistic means, provisions and requirements. Therefore, it is natural that language was formed on the basis of speech.

However, Saussure considered the study of language to be the foundation of linguistic science, defining precisely its fundamental principle and thereby contributing to the emergence of many errors and delusions in the activities of his students and followers.

Any fact of language is not simply generated in speech: before it is given a linguistic status, it is verified and approved by it. Noting that historically the fact of speech always precedes language At the same time, Saussure argued that from the very beginning a researcher needs to stand on the basis of language and consider it the norm for all manifestations of speech activity. For him, language is a kind of charter, in accordance with which the construction of speech is carried out.

Thus, Saussure saw only one side of the linguistic iceberg - its present real existence, completely missing the question of where and how this iceberg came from.

The most convincing objection to F. de Saussure was expressed by his student Albert Sechet: “Every act of expression, any communication, no matter how it is performed, is an act of speech ... they do not have a relationship of interdependence. Speech is organized more or less according to the laws of the language, which she herself created in order to be clearer and more effective. The states of speech can change immediately to a large extent, but at the same time its essence is not affected. Speech keeps something spontaneous and alive, which is very essential ... it is always something more. "

The language is inventoried and organized into a system, it is standardized. Speech is a creative, individual phenomenon, starting from its minimum unit. Any development of the language is due to the generalizations of the results of speech. There is nothing in language that at first would not appear in speech and would not receive approbation in it. Speech, the ability to speech activity, speech skills develop in a person from infancy. He will get acquainted with the language as an academic subject, as an arsenal and a system later, when his speech activity is already completely independent.

So the spheres of language and speech, although they are interconnected and constitute a common object of linguistics, are at the same time isolated and independent. There are sections of linguistics for which the issue of distinguishing language and speech is not so relevant, but there are those for which it is paramount - both in methodological and scientific terms. This section, in particular, is syntax, which is not surprising, since it connects the spheres of language and speech. Therefore, in syntax, like in no other section of linguistics, one should clearly understand the boundaries of language and speech, consistently distinguish between linguistic units and speech units.

Let's pay attention to the chain of the following words: boy, book, read, interesting . All of them, being presented separately, have generalized meanings and relate to the sphere of language, i.e. are generalized significant (nominative) units of the vocabulary system of the language.

Now let's turn to the next row: boy, book, reads, interesting . Before us is a number of specific morphological word forms. These are also language units, and they belong to the corresponding morphological paradigms. However, the same word forms that appeared in the mind of a person as a single intonationally designed structural-semantic block (for example, when answering the question: “ What do you see? ”), Act as an oral message or a sentence - in written speech: A boy reading an interesting book . As a result of the mental activity of the subject of speech, these word forms are connected in him grammatically, intonationally and meaningfully, reflecting a specific fact of reality in relation to time and reality, i.e. they convey specific content. Before us is already a speech unit, and it represents the sphere of speech. This is a syntagma that performs the function of a phrase in oral speech, and in writing - a function of a sentence. In this case, there is not and cannot be a pause inside the speech block.

But if we are talking about the correspondence of a given speech fragment to one or another typical sentence scheme, as a result of which it will take the abstract form of expression ( N1 – Vf), then we again come into contact with the sphere of language, with its generalizations and abstractions. Before us seems to be a sentence, as evidenced by conventional symbols, but this is not a sentence or even its framework, but only basic (typical, but not always explicitly required in real speech) signs-symbols of the “skeleton” of a speech unit. In an abstract form, they represent only its predicative center.

However, the presence of a predicative center ( N1 – Vf) does not mean at all that in any communication situation we really have a sentence as a real speech unit. So, speech structure The starlings have arrived conveying information that specific actors have taken a specific action, corresponds to this scheme and qualifies as an independent proposal.

But if we turn to the proposal And last year the starlings arrived back in February, the content of which reflects not so much the fact that specific actors performed the named action, but the temporary differences in its performance, then its main members removed from the structure of the sentence ( starlings have arrived) fully correspond to the indicated scheme of a sentence, but do not really form it, being only a part of a specific integral structure, because they cannot convey the content of the sentence from which they were isolated. They are not a sentence, since the part is not equal to the whole.

In general theoretical terms, in isolation from reality, from a specific speech situation and speech activity in general - like yes, this is a sentence (at least, very similar to it), but in a real speech situation, in relation to specific information, this is just a part of the sentence. Of course, this is structurally the main part of it, but not at all the main one in terms of content.

In order to objectively understand many problems of linguistics and, first of all, in matters of syntax, it is necessary, when studying the structure, meaning and functions of linguistic units, to clearly distinguish the spheres of language and speech, to consistently delimit them, not to mix linguistic and speech units. It is necessary to take into account the form of speech - oral or written, - to distinguish between the speech actions of the subject of speech and the subject of its perception, and also to clearly distinguish between units of oral speech and units of written speech. This means that it is necessary to take into account the types of speech activity: speaking and letter as processes of speech production, reading and listening as processes of perception.

V.A. Zvegintsev, drawing attention to the dual nature of the object of linguistics (the presence of spheres of language and speech - EF), wrote: “In whatever forms we represent the duality of the object of linguistics, it is quite obvious that we are dealing with two different phenomena - they were closely related and in whatever relationship they might be. Any linguistic theory that claims the adequacy of the description, not only cannot ignore the fact of this duality, but must base it on as a starting point. If she does not do this, she will doom herself from the very beginning to deliberate inferiority. ” In our opinion, this idea should be considered the methodological basis of research activity.

In linguistics, other terms are often used to refer to these two linguistic areas. True, they do not always coincide with the opposition “language - speech”. These are terms such as: the code and message(R. Jacobson); scheme and usus; language system and process, text(L. Elmslev); language competence and use(N. Chomsky) and others. However, the most accurate and common terms are language and speech that are most relevant to the areas under consideration.

The linguistic world includes the sphere of language as a stable system of established means, their qualifications, changes and the sphere of speech, which marks the use of linguistic means in the process of speech activity, in connection with which some scientists, following N. Chomsky, talk about linguistic competence (knowledge of language means) and speech competence, use (i.e. the ability to use them). All linguistic units, depending on the scope of their functioning (not presence, namely functioning), can be divided into linguistic and speech. Linguistic units (phoneme, morpheme, word, word form, phrase scheme, sentence scheme, etc.) have a generalizing or abstract nature of meaning. For them, the main thing is to reflect the essential feature of a unit-type or scheme (model) as a typical structure. So, words are independent linguistic units, they presuppose generalization and separateness, corresponding to the formula “reality - name”. In speech, they are usually used not independently, not individually, but in groups. At the same time, the degree of actualization of their individual meaning and its quality change. With a change in meaning and their scope, their status changes. This is no longer just a group of words, but a minimal communicative unit of speech with a situational meaning, which assumes concreteness and compatibility

The minimum speech units are specific and meaningfully situational. They are generated on the basis of linguistic units, taking into account their essential features and actualizing the accidental indicators of the realities designated by them, therefore, they have a specific, situational meaning. They are individual and associated with a specific speech situation, which is reflected directly in their content. All other speech structures are composed of them. phrases, messages(spoken), and simple and complex sentences, sayings and texts(in writing).

I.A. Baudouin de Courtenay. He saw significant differences in the meaning of units of language and speech. To reflect this with scientific accuracy and not to mix units of different spheres, he used different terms in relation to words. lexeme and syntagma... Under token he meant a word in the language system with its generalized meaning (as a carrier of the essential idea of ​​the designated reality, as opposed to all other realities), and by syntagma- a word in speech (in a sentence) with its situational meaning as a result of activation of accidental signs of a specific reality in a circle of similar ones. Perhaps the term he proposed syntagma, which has existed in science since ancient times and etymologically did not correlate with one word (Syntagma - from Greek: built together, connected), was not entirely successful. Therefore, he did not gain a foothold in the meaning that Baudouin de Courtenay gave him. Rejecting Baudouin's understanding of this term and not offering it a suitable replacement, linguists thereby abandoned the scientifically convincing idea of ​​the need for a clear and consistent delimitation of the spheres of language and speech, as well as their units.

Language as a tool and material for thinking is common to all its carriers, but thinking itself is individual, in connection with which speech is also individual, as a form of reflection of a person's thinking. Moreover, it is individual already at the level of syntagmas, which is confirmed by the so-called winged words and expressions that have their own authors, often exist in the form of a syntagma, and not only in the form of a sentence.

So communication is carried out already at the syntagma level. Syntagmas are speech structures in which linguistic material as a result of the subject's mental activity is transformed into a specific speech one. During their formation, successful, less successful, or even unsuccessful speech-generating actions of the individual are possible. Therefore, their study pursues as one of the main practical goals: to promote the development of skills for quick and skillful construction of speech structures in oral and written speech, as well as clear and quick perception of them when reading texts. Syntagmas are not only an individual product of using language in speech activity in accordance with theory and cultural-speech tradition, but also rich material for the further development and improvement of language and speech. What was knowledge today, tomorrow becomes a method and technique for studying linguistic theory or the formation and development of skills and abilities to analyze linguistic material, as well as the development of all types of speech activity - both producing and receptive.

All new facts of social and individual use of the language, becoming the object of study and scientific research, developing the theory, at the same time enrich the speech practice. The syntagmas arising in the process of speech provide rich material for the study of the features of the real combination of words and the development of their expressive capabilities.

The units of learning the syntax of a language (language sphere) are collocation and sentence as metastructures, as typical generalized syntactic patterns, abstract schemas, or models, and syntaxeme and member of the proposal as components of a phrase and a sentence. Status syntaxemes automatically gets any morphological form of a word or an unchangeable significant word, falling into the area of ​​syntax.

The metalinguistic purpose and functions of a word combination are to clarify the possibility of combining certain words, the peculiarities of the syntactic connection of the combined words, types of communication, its means, as well as in the establishment of syntactic relations arising in this case.

Syntagma is an extremely minimal unit that marks the sphere of speech, it is the initial means of a specific speech situation. It is the smallest unit of speech syntax. Language represents the totality of all generalized and abstract units with a system of their forms and various uses in speech. Language, as A.I. Smirnitsky, means communication and thinking, and speech is a reflection of countless ways individual and creative application of this tool. Language forms speech, it exists in it, is preserved and developed. Language and speech are contiguous linguistic autonomous spheres. They can neither be confused, much less identified.

The language situation in the countries of the target language

1. The structure and types of the language situation. Conditions for the emergence of a situation of bilingualism. Language interference and transference.

2. Interlinguistics. International, interethnic and world languages.

3. The language situation in England and the United States.

The structure and types of the language situation. Conditions for the emergence of a situation of bilingualism. Language interference and transference.

The specificity of a society, the level of its development, the homogeneity and heterogeneity of its composition determine the nature of the linguistic situation in this society.

The language situation includes the following components:

1) social conditions for the functioning of the language;

2) the scope and environment of its use;

3) the forms of its existence.

The social conditions for the functioning of the language include: 1) socio-economic formations; 2) forms of ethnic community; 3) the level of sovereignty; 4) the form of state autonomy; 5) the level of cultural development; 6) the number of people and their territorial compactness; 7) ethnic environment.

Areas of use of the language Is the most important component of the language situation. They are conditioned by the topic of communication, the time and place of communication, the area of ​​social activity.

The most important are the spheres of economic activity; social and political activity; everyday life; organized learning; fiction; mass media; aesthetic impact; oral folk art; Sciences; all types of office work; personal correspondence; religious worship.

This list is not canonical and in relation to a specific language can be both smaller and larger.

Language environments is communication within a family, within a production team, within a social group, within a settlement or region, within a whole people, interethnic communication, human communication.

Forms of language existence are divided into those that unite all speakers (literary form, dialectal, supra-dialectal, languages ​​of interethnic communication) and isolating speakers ("male" and "female" languages, ritual languages, caste languages, jargons, argot).

So, the linguistic situation is the relationship of various means of communication used in a given territory (usually within the state, as well as within the boundaries of a certain region of a political-territorial association).

Among linguistic situations, there are intralingual (simple - diglossia - the situation of simultaneous use of the literary and dialectal forms of one language) and interlingual (complex - polylinguism - a situation of multilingualism; the most typical case is bilingualism, bilingualism).

The situation of bilingualism, or bilingualism, arises as a result of linguistic contacts. The mutual influence of languages ​​is one of the constantly acting factors of language development. According to linguists, there is practically not a single language that has not experienced a foreign language influence. Linguistic contacts arise where two or more linguistic structures (their sections, parts, elements) meet directly or indirectly in their speech application by the same people.

The main conditions for the appearance of language contacts include the following:

a) when the territory in which one population lives (with its own language)

occupies a population speaking another language;

b) when a multilingual population peacefully lives on the same territory;

c) when a multilingual population lives in neighboring territories, which facilitates mutual communication;

d) when a part of the population of one country enters into trade, scientific and other contacts with the population of another country speaking another language;

e) when a foreign language is studied at school and is practically used.

A linguistic situation in which two languages ​​function in one territory, in one ethnic sphere, is called bilingualism... Bilingual speakers are bilingual. For example, in Canada, where there are two main peoples (Anglo-Canadians and French-Canadians), there are two official languages ​​- English and French; in Finland there are two state. languages ​​- Finnish and Swedish; in Belarus - Belarusian and Russian; in Tatarstan - Tatar and Russian.

As a result of bilingualism, elements of different languages ​​penetrate each other. A bilingual person may start to speak and write not in a pure language, but in their native language with an admixture of a second (non-native) language. For example, there are many Russian words in the speech of the Tatar population, and, on the contrary, Russians often use Tatar words and expressions. There is an adaptation of the two linguistic systems to each other, while each of them preserves its independence and originality. A "mixed" language is not formed.

Bilingualism is distinguished between complete and partial, differentiated and undifferentiated.

Full bilingualism- a linguistic situation in which two languages ​​are mastered by the entire linguistic community.

Partial bilingualism- linguistic situation when only part of the team is bilingual.

Differentiated bilingualism formed as a result of a special study of a foreign language. A bilingual person is well aware of the boundaries between them. For the expression of one thought, it has two equivalents in both languages, without introducing anything from the parallel language. For example, Russian aristocrats con. XVIII - early. XIX century. spoke Russian and French, but did not know how to translate from one language to another. They learned French in early childhood from tutors who did not know Russian. Thus, the study of the French language proceeded without looking back at the Russian language. Consequently, everyone in consciousness was completely autonomous. This is the so-called pure bilingualism.

When studying a foreign language at school, there is a repulsion from the native language in which a person speaks and thinks, there is a constant look at the native language; it acts as the dominant language. Language acquisition through the native language also occurs in mixed marriages, when a foreigner lives (at the initial stages) abroad. This situation is called mixed bilingualism.

Undifferentiated bilingualism arises in the context of everyday bilingualism. A person, constantly switching from one language code to another, gradually loses a clear sense of the boundaries between native and non-native languages.

In the conditions of linguistic contact (bilingualism), processes occurring in the mind of a native speaker, which are called linguistic interference.

Interference- this is a violation of the norms of a language under the influence of the norms of another language, or a change in the structure or elements of the structure of one language under the influence of another.

During contacts, interference is aimed at mutual convergence of languages ​​(for example, borrowing from another language, lexical adaptations). Interference is viewed as a positive phenomenon. It contributes to the enrichment of mutually influencing languages, the penetration of the structural elements of one language into another, the creation of the prerequisites for further qualitative shifts in the development of their systems.

Another thing is when the skills of the native are transferred to the target language, which has a negative, inhibitory effect on the acquisition of a second language. This transfer does not affect the norm and structure of the target language. There is no mutual influence of languages. Such a transfer (and not mutual influence) of elements, signs and rules from one language to another is called by transfer.

For example, in Russian we speak I got on the bus, English cannot be said I sat in the bus... Necessary: I took a bus, which is literally translated into Russian - I took the bus.

Or: for an Englishman, the category of the time of the Russian language is difficult and therefore instead of, for example, a simple future I will come to you tomorrow(in English I shall come to you tomorrow) he will use the future compound and speak Russian I will come to you tomorrow.

Difficulties also arise at the phonetic level. Often the English sound [Ө] is replaced by the Russian [s] or [z].

What are the consequences of language contact and, in particular, interference? According to the majority of linguists, the mixing of languages ​​does not occur as such, and one language gradually replaces the other. The confusion of languages, scientists believe, is excluded due to the systemic nature of the language and the closed nature of certain linguistic subsystems, primarily grammatical.

During contacts, one language turns out to be the winner (substrate), the other - the defeated one (superstratum). But in the system of the victorious language, changes take place under the influence of the defeated language. For example, simplification of the morphology of the winning language due to adaptation to the needs of a foreign-speaking people (simplification of the morphology of the English language after contact with the Scandinavian languages); the introduction of common words of the defeated language into the vocabulary of the winning language (in modern English, up to 60% of words of French origin). Which language will be the winner and which will be defeated does not depend on the nature of the language, its features, on the ease or convenience of a particular language system. The language of that nationality wins, which has advantages in contact between the two nations. The influence of one nationality on another is determined by its higher cultural development. For example, the Mongolian language could not supplant the languages ​​of highly developed peoples (Russian, Chinese, Indian); the Balkan languages ​​were not defeated by the language of the Turkish conquerors.

Long-term linguistic contacts between neighboring peoples lead to convergence. convergence is the consolidation of structural common features in languages ​​as a result of the mutual influence of neighboring peoples. The languages ​​embraced by the convergence process are combined into language unions. For example, the language union is formed by the languages ​​of the Balkan Peninsula, which are not related by genetic relationship (Albanian, Romanian, Bulgarian, Greek, Serbo-Croatian). These languages ​​have many common features in phonetics, morphology, vocabulary.

From everything that has been said so far, it becomes clear that the language can serve a very wide range of communicative needs of the individual and society as a whole. In accordance with different areas of human activity - production, education, science, culture, trade, everyday life, etc. - different spheres of language use (or languages, if we are talking about a non-lingual society) are distinguished.

The sphere of language use is an area of ​​extra-linguistic reality, characterized by the relative homogeneity of communicative needs, for the satisfaction of which speakers carry out a certain selection of linguistic means and the rules for their combination with each other.

As a result of such a selection of linguistic means and the rules for their combination with each other, a more or less stable (for a given linguistic community) tradition is formed, correlating a certain sphere of human activity with a certain language code (subcode) - an independent language or a subsystem of the national language. So, in medieval Europe, Latin was a communicative tool used in worship, as well as in science. Other areas of activity were served by the respective national languages ​​and their subsystems. For a long time, the role of a cult communication tool in Russia has been played by the Church Slavonic language. In the modern Pamirs, one of the Pamir languages ​​- the unwritten Shugnan - is used mainly in the sphere of family and everyday communication of the Shugnans, in official situations, as well as when communicating with "strangers", they use the Tajik and Russian languages.

Languages ​​and their subsystems in areas of activity can be distributed loosely: one of the languages ​​or one of the subsystems prevails in this area, but the use of elements and other languages ​​(subsystems) is allowed. So, in the family communication of the inhabitants of the modern Russian village, the local dialect predominates, it is also used by them in the production of agricultural work. However, in modern conditions, a pure dialect, as we have already found out above, is a rarity. It is retained only by some representatives of the older generation of rural residents. In the speech of the majority, however, it is strongly "diluted" with elements of the literary language and vernacular. Thus, in Belarus, in the field of humanitarian education, the Belarusian language is used (this is encouraged by the officially pursued policy of the state), but here you can also find elements of the closely related Russian language. In the sphere of production, despite the state support of the native language, the Russian language prevails (in special terminology, in technical documentation, in professional communication of specialists). The use of Belarusian, of course, is not prohibited.

1.18. Speech and non-speech communication

Term communication polysemantic: it is used, for example, in a combination of "mass communication" (meaning the press, radio, television), in technology it is used to designate communication lines, etc. In sociolinguistics, communication is a synonym for communication. A foreign term in this case is more convenient, since it easily forms derivatives, and they are necessary to denote different aspects of communication: communicative situation, communicants (= participants in a communicative situation) and some others.

Communication can be speech and non-verbal(or, in other terminology, verbal and non-verbal - from lat. verbum "word, expression"). For example, communication between people in a number of sports games (basketball, football, volleyball) does not necessarily include a verbal component or includes it minimally - in the form of exclamations: Pass! I take it! etc. Not all physical work requires verbal communication. For example, in workshops with a high level of noise - stamping, mechanical assembly, foundry - they do without words, but people working in such workshops still communicate (for example, using gestures).

A significantly larger part of the types of human communication occurs with the help of speech (after all, language is also intended mainly for communication). These types are primarily of interest to sociolinguists.

Speech communication takes place within the framework of a communicative situation 13.

Spheres of use of the language.

1. Areas of use of the language

2. Speech and non-verbal communication, communicative situation

3. Verbal communication, behavior, act

4. Communicative competence of a native speaker

1. We have already spoken a lot about the fact that the language serves a wide range of communication needs of a person and society. In accordance with various areas of human activity - production, education, science, culture, everyday life - the spheres of language use are distinguished, or languages, if we are talking about a non-lingual society. Scope of language use- This is an area of ​​extra-linguistic activity, characterized by the homogeneity of communicative needs, for the satisfaction of which speakers carry out a certain selection of linguistic units and the rules for their combination with each other. As a result of such a selection of linguistic means and the rules for their combination with each other, a more or less stable tradition is formed that correlates a certain human activity with a certain linguistic code, i.e. with an independent language or a subsystem of the national language (jargon, argot, language styles). So, for medieval Europe, Latin was a communicative tool used in worship, as well as in science. In Russia, the Church Slavonic language (the language of church books, services) has long played the role of a communicative medium.

Languages ​​and subsystems can be distributed among areas of activity not rigidly: one of the languages ​​or language systems prevails in one area, but the use of units and other languages ​​or language systems is allowed. Thus, in Belarus, in the field of humanitarian education, the Belarusian language is used (this is encouraged by the purposeful policy of the state), but here you can also find elements of the close Russian language. In the sphere of production, despite the state support of the native language, Russian prevails.

2. Speech and non-speech communication. In sociolinguistics, communication is synonymous with communication. Communication can be verbal and non-verbal, verbal and non-verbal. Communication of people in a number of sports games does not necessarily include a verbal component or include it minimally in the form of exclamations. The vast majority of human communication occurs through speech. These types of communication are primarily of interest to sociolinguists. Speech communication takes place within the framework of a communicative situation.

The communicative situation, as we said earlier, depends on the social roles and communication style between partners (at the same level, the relationship of superiority, subordination). The communicative situation has a certain structure. It consists of the following components: speaker (addressee), listener (addressee), the relationship between the speaker and the listener and the associated tonality of communication (official, neutral, friendly), the purpose of communication, the means of communication (language or its subsystems), the way of communication ( oral or written), place of communication.

These components are situational variables. A change in each of them leads to a change in communicative communication and, consequently, to a variation in the means used by the participants in the situation. So, the communication between the judge and the witness in the courtroom is distinguished by the greater formality of the means used, but if communication is outside the court session, then the place changes, and speech becomes freer. One parameter of the communicative situation changes and the choice of linguistic units changes immediately. If the judge and the witness are familiar with each other, then the setting of the court session and their roles dictate to them the official tone of communication; outside of this setting, when returning to the role relationship “acquaintance-acquaintance” (“friend-friend”), the tone of communication can change to an informal, even familiar, using the means of the spoken language, vernacular, jargon.

In real communication, situational variables interact with each other, and each of them acquires a certain value in relation to others. If the place of communication changes, then this also means a change in its purpose, as well as the relationship between the participants in the communication and the tonality of communication.

Let us give an example of a recording of the speech of the same person speaking in a different setting about a scientific trip. While maintaining the theme, the whole range of situational variables changes: purpose, place, relations between participants in communication, tonality, contact. Accordingly, the whole structure of speech changes: the choice of vocabulary, syntactic structures, the intonational structure of the statement, the logical sequence of presentation.

1. And this protoplasm had to ... ... no, not even examples or something ... to find, but to climb the whole card index. And the devil only knows them, maybe they are not there at all, these terms (conversation with friends)

2. It doesn't matter if I went: I didn't have a list of words, I had to somehow contrive to find in the card index not individual terms, but the whole group of terms. Moreover, no one — neither the head of the file cabinet, nor I myself knew if they were even there at all (conversation with colleagues) - more official, although they could be contrived.

3. It was very difficult to find the necessary terms in the card index: I did not have an exact list, I had to largely go by touch (oral report on a business trip at a branch meeting) - (go by touch)

4. During a business trip, I collected materials about the group of terms I studied. Despite the difficulties - the lack of an accurate list of words, the lack of information about the presence of terms of the subject of interest to me in the card index, I managed to find a number of linguistically meaningful examples (from the official report on the trip).

Situational variables have different weights in terms of their influence on the nature of the communicative situation. More weight is possessed by those variables that reflect the social predestination of the structure of communication, less - variables that reflect the variability of the communicative situation. The most significant is the purpose of communication. Despite the fact that tonality (the nature of the relationship between speakers), at first glance, is a secondary variable, in reality, speakers not only clearly feel the differences between official, neutral and friendly communication, but know in advance which tonality corresponds to certain communicative situations. In contrast, the weight of the variable place is much less than the goal, the tone of communication. Location change is significant when combined with other variables. If, with a change in place, the dependence of one participant of communication on another changes, then the nature of verbal communication changes (conversation with a policeman on the street and at a police station). In other cases, with a change in place, the nature of communication does not change (communication between a teacher and a student in the classroom and outside the classroom).

3. Speech communication is a synonym for speech communication. It is important to emphasize that both terms denote a two-way process, the interaction of people in the course of communication. In contrast to it, the term speech behavior emphasizes the one-sidedness of the process: it designates those properties and features that distinguish speech and speech reactions of the speaker or listener. The term verbal behavior is convenient when describing monologic forms of speech. However, it is insufficient when analyzing the dialogue. Thus, the term verbal communication includes the term verbal behavior.

The term speech act denotes specific speech actions of the speaker within the framework of a particular communicative situation. For example, in the situation of purchasing a product, a dialogue is possible, including various speech acts: a request for information (How much does it cost? Who is the manufacturer? What material is it made of?), A message (Two thousand. South Korea. Genuine leather), a request (Postpone, please, I run away for money), accusation (you gave me the change incorrectly). I run for money), accusation (you gave me the change incorrectly).

In the middle of the 20th century, the English philosopher John Austin, followed by the American scientists John Searle and Georg Grice, developed a theory of speech acts, in which they identified a number of patterns characteristic of the process of speech communication, and formulated principles and postulates, the adherence to which ensures the success of one or another speech act or speech communication in general. For example: "Express yourself clearly", "Be sincere", "Be brief", "Avoid obscure expressions."

Attempts are being made to develop rules that would not only take into account the patterns of using speech means, but also regulate their combination with each other, depending on the nature of the communicative situation. An example is the rules developed by the American researcher Erwin-Tripp. She uses the term rule to state certain normative, typical acts of communication. The researcher highlights the following types of rules:

1) The rules for choosing speech means (common for all social strata, specific for social groups and strata) - literary language - jargon, dialect, vernacular

2) The rules of following, i.e. sequence of speech actions during communication: greeting, gratitude, farewell. In accordance with this, formulas for parting, inviting, calling by phone, and establishing a communicative contact are being developed.

3) Rules of co-occurrence: rules of connection in one context of certain lexical, phonetic, intonational, syntactic units. The types of these rules: a) horizontal, defining the relationship between the units of the conversation in time (their temporal sequence). B) vertical, defining ratios in given communicative conditions of units of different levels of the linguistic structure (the choice of the normative one should be combined with the normative pronunciation).

With all the conventionality of the considered rules, the idea of ​​sociolinguistic grammars containing the rules of social and linguistic behavior of people in various situations is very attractive and productive.

4. In the process of verbal communication, people use the means of language to build statements that would be understood by the addressee. However, only knowledge of vocabulary and grammar is not enough for communication to be successful: you also need to know the conditions for using units and their combination. In addition to grammar, a native speaker must learn situational grammar, which prescribes the use of linguistic means in accordance with the nature of the relationship between the speaker and the addressee, the purpose of communication and other factors that, together with linguistic knowledge, constitute the social competence of the native speaker. The difference between knowing a language and mastering it is that in the first case, the individual knows the laws of the language, the nature of the combination of its units, but cannot vary the units of the language depending on the communicative situation.

The sphere of communicative competence also includes the rules of etiquette, the rules of communication between a child and an adult, rules for communicating with friends and foes, superior, inferior and equal, rules for maintaining social distance with significant social asymmetry of communication participants, various behavioral strategies that control the implementation of such acts as a request , demand, accusation, threat, promise. Most of these rules and strategies are "unwritten". Situational grammars have not yet been created that would regulate a person's speech behavior depending on the situation. At the same time, native speakers have rules and strategies for verbal communication in a variety of life circumstances, which ensures their normal and effective interaction with each other.

Control questions:

1) How are the spheres of language use distributed in society?

2) What are the differences between verbal and non-verbal communication?

3) How do the parameters of the communicative situation affect speech behavior?

4) How are the factors of the communicative situation distributed depending on their ability to influence speech behavior?

5) What is the difference between communicative communication and behavior?

6) What is a speech act? What types of speech acts can be found in various types of communication?

7) What theories of speech acts do you know? What is the essence of these theories?

8) What is communicative competence, what does it include?