Limited vocabulary. Common vocabulary Colloquial vocabulary
The vocabulary of the Russian national language includes national vocabulary, the use of which is not limited either by the place of residence or by the type of activity of people, and vocabulary of limited use, which is common within one locality or in a circle of people united by a profession, common interests, etc.
The popular vocabulary forms the basis of the Russian language. It includes words from different areas of society: political, economic, cultural, everyday life, etc. Common words, in contrast to the vocabulary of limited use, are understandable and accessible to any native speaker.
1.8.1. Dialectal vocabulary. Penetration of dialect vocabulary into the literary language
Throughout the history of the Russian literary language, its vocabulary was replenished with dialectisms. Among the words that go back to dialectisms, there are stylistically neutral (taiga, hill, owl, strawberry, smile, plow, very) and words with an expressive coloring (boring, lurid, mumble, nip, nonsense, confusion). Many words of dialectal origin are associated with the life and life of the peasantry (farm laborer, harrow, spindle, dugout). After 1917, the words grain grower, plowing, greening, steam, mowing, milkmaid, initiative, new settler entered the literary language.
The Russian literary language is also enriched with ethnographic vocabulary. In the 50-60s, the Siberian ethnographic words “pad, raspadok, shuga, etc.” were mastered. In this regard, in modern lexicography, an opinion is expressed about the need to revise the system of stylistic labels, limiting the use of words by indicating their dialectal character.
And yet, for the development of the modern literary language, dialectal influence is not essential. On the contrary, despite the isolated cases of borrowing dialect words in the literary language, he subjugates dialects, which leads to their leveling and gradual withering away.
1.8.2. Dialectisms in artistic speech
In artistic speech, dialectisms perform important stylistic functions: they help to convey the local flavor, features of the characters' speech, and finally, dialectal vocabulary can be a source of speech expression.
The use of dialectisms in Russian fiction has its own history. Poetics of the 18th century allowed dialectal vocabulary only in low genres, mainly in comedy; dialectisms were a distinctive feature of the characters' non-literary, predominantly peasant speech. At the same time, dialect features of various dialects were often mixed in the speech of one hero.
Sentimental writers, prejudiced against the coarse, "muzhik" language, shielded their syllable from dialect vocabulary.
The interest in dialectisms was caused by the desire of realist writers to truthfully reflect the life of the people, to convey the "common" flavor. Dialect sources were consulted by I.A. Krylov, A.S. Pushkin, N.V. Gogol, N.A. Nekrasov, I.S. Turgenev, L.N. Tolstoy and others. Turgenev, for example, often contains words from the Oryol and Tula dialects (bolshak, gutorit, poneva, potion, wave, medicament, buchilo, etc.). 19th century writers used dialectisms that corresponded to their aesthetic attitudes. This does not mean that only some poeticized dialect words were allowed into the literary language. Stylistically, the appeal to a reduced dialect vocabulary could also be justified. For example: As deliberately, the peasants met all wiped out (T.) - here dialectism with a negative emotional-expressive coloration in the context is combined with other reduced vocabulary (the rakits stood like beggars in rags; the peasants were riding bad nags).
Modern writers also use dialectisms when describing village life, landscapes, and when conveying the characters' way of speaking. Skillfully entered dialect words are a gratifying means of speech expression.
It is necessary to distinguish, on the one hand, the "quotation" use of dialectisms, when they are present in the context as an alien-style element, and, on the other hand, their use on an equal footing with the vocabulary of the literary language, with which dialectisms must stylistically merge.
When using "quotation" dialectisms, it is important to observe a sense of proportion, remember that the language of the work must be understandable to the reader. For example: All evenings, or even nights, sit [the guys] of the races, speaking in a local way, and bake opalikh, that is, potatoes (Abbr.) - this use of dialectisms is stylistically justified. When assessing the aesthetic value of dialectal vocabulary, one should proceed from its internal motivation and organicity in the context. By itself, the presence of dialectisms cannot yet testify to a realistic reflection of the local color. As A.M. rightly emphasized. Gorky, “everyday life should be laid in the foundation, and not glued onto the facade. Local flavor is not in the use of words: taiga, hut, shanga - it should stick out from the inside out. "
A more complex problem is the use of dialectisms along with literary vocabulary as stylistically unambiguous speech means. In this case, enthusiasm for dialectisms can lead to clogging the language of the work. For example: Everything is vabit, bewitching; Swimming odal belozor; Slope with screwed up- such an introduction of dialectisms obscures the meaning.
When determining the aesthetic value of dialectisms in artistic speech, one should take into account which words the author chooses. Based on the requirement of accessibility, clarity of the text, the use of dialectisms that do not require additional clarification and are understandable in context is usually noted as proof of the writer's skill. Therefore, writers often conditionally reflect the peculiarities of the local dialect, using several characteristic dialect words. As a result of this approach, dialectisms that have become widespread in fiction often become "common Russian", having lost contact with a specific folk dialect. The appeal of writers to the dialectisms of this circle is no longer perceived by the modern reader as an expression of the individual author's manner, it becomes a kind of literary cliché.
Writers should look beyond “inter-dialectal” vocabulary and strive for non-standard uses of dialectisms. An example of a creative solution to this problem can be the prose of V.M. Shukshin. There are no incomprehensible dialect words in his works, but the speech of the heroes is always original, folk. For example, vivid expression distinguishes dialectisms in the story "How the Old Man Died":
Yegor got up on the brace, slipped his hands under the old man.
Hold on to my neck ... That's it! How light it has become! ..
I got out ... (...)
In the evening I’ll stop by and have a meal. (...)
Don't eat, that's weakness, ”the old woman remarked. - Maybe we will hack a chicken - cook broth? It's boring straight from the tin ... Huh? (...)
Do not. And we really won't eat, but we will solve the trigger. (...)
At least wait a minute, don't be fussy! (...) What, are you dying, or what? Maybe it’s oklemais. (...)
Agnyusha, - he said with difficulty, - forgive me ... I was a little overwhelmed ...
The processes of the increasing spread of the literary language and the withering away of dialects characteristic of our historical era are manifested in the reduction of lexical dialectisms in artistic speech.
1.8.3. Stylistically unjustified use of dialectisms
Dialectisms as an expressive means of speech can be used only in those styles in which going beyond the normative boundaries of the vocabulary of the literary language into popular dialects is stylistically justified. In the scientific and official-business styles, dialectisms do not find application.
The introduction of dialectal vocabulary into works of journalistic style is possible, but requires great care. In journalism, it is undesirable to use dialectisms on a par with literary vocabulary; dialectisms are especially unacceptable in the author's narration. For example: Then Shirokikh saw Lushnikov, and they returned to the gathering place, made a fire and began to shout at their comrades; The icebreaker went well, but Stepan hoped to slip to the right bank until the path on the river was ruined - replacing dialectisms with common words, sentences can be corrected as follows: ... The icebreaker moved quickly, but Stepan hoped to slip to the right bank while the ice on the river was still intact (until the ice broke).
It is completely unacceptable to use dialect words, the meaning of which is not entirely clear to the author. So, narrating about the jubilee steam locomotive voyage, the journalist writes: Everything was the same as 125 years ago, when the same steam locomotive traveled along the first route ... However, he did not take into account that the word first route means “the first winter route through fresh snow”.
It should be borne in mind that the use of dialectisms is not justified even as a characterological means, if the author quotes the words of the heroes, spoken in an official setting. For example: ... It is necessary to overlook the animal in a timely manner, notify the veterinary service; Chefs bring food, bridges will be washed, linen will be handed over to the laundry. And sometimes they just come in to see us (speech of the heroes of the essays). In such cases, dialectisms create an unacceptable inconsistency of speech means, because rural residents try to speak the literary language in conversation with journalists. The authors of the essays could write: ... We must take care of the animal in time; ... the floors will be washed; sometimes they'll just drop by for dinner.
1.8.4. Professional vocabulary
Professional vocabulary includes words and expressions used in various spheres of human activity, which, however, have not become common. Professionalisms are used to designate various production processes, tools of production, raw materials, products obtained, etc. Unlike terms, which are the official scientific names of special concepts, professionalisms are perceived as “semi-official” words that do not have a strictly scientific nature. For example, in the oral speech of printers there are professionalisms: the ending - "graphic decoration at the end of the book", the antennae - "the ending with a thickening in the middle", the tail - "the lower outer margin of the page, as well as the lower edge of the book opposite to the head of the book."
As part of the professional vocabulary, one can distinguish groups of words that are different in their field of use: professionalisms used in the speech of athletes, miners, hunters, fishermen. Words that are highly specialized names used in the field of technology are called technicisms.
The most prominent are professional jargon words that have a reduced expressive coloration. For example, engineers use the word snitcher to mean "self-recording device"; in the speech of pilots there are words nedomaz and peremaz (undershoot and flight of the landing mark), bubble, sausage - "balloon-probe"; for journalists - a snowdrop - "a person who works as a newspaper correspondent, but enrolled in the states in a different specialty"; how to call? - "how to title (article, essay)?"; italicize (emphasize in italics).
In reference books and special dictionaries, professionalisms are often enclosed in quotation marks so that they can be distinguished from the terms (a "hammered" font - "a font that has been in galleys or stripes for a long time"; a "foreign" font - "letters of a font of a different style or size, mistakenly included in the typed text or heading ").
1.8.5. The use of professional vocabulary in the literary language
Under certain conditions, professionalisms find application in the literary language. So, with insufficient elaboration of terminology, professionalisms often play the role of terms. In this case, they are found not only in oral, but also in written speech. When using professionalisms in a scientific style, the authors often explain them in the text (The so-called light hay enjoys a well-deserved notoriety as a poorly nutritious food, with a significant use of which cases of fragility of bones in animals are noticed).
Professionalism is not uncommon in the language of large-circulation, industry newspapers (to land the cars after the dissolution of the train and divert shunting means for this, ... the dissolution of the train with the thrust of another). The advantage of professionalisms over their commonly used equivalents is that professionalisms serve to differentiate closely related concepts, subjects that for a non-specialist have one common name. Thanks to this, special vocabulary for people of one profession is a means of accurate and concise expression of thoughts. However, the informative value of narrowly professional names is lost if a layman encounters them. Therefore, the use of professionalism in newspapers requires caution.
Penetrate into the language of the newspaper and professionalism of reduced stylistic sound, very common in colloquial speech. For example, essays turn to such expressive professionalism as "shuttle traders", shuttle business, turn on the counter (increase the loan percentage), etc. However, the excessive use of professionalism interferes with the perception of the text and becomes a serious lack of style. Professional slang vocabulary is not used in book styles. In fiction, it can be used along with other vernacular elements as a characterological means.
1.8.6. Stylistically unjustified use of professionalisms
The inclusion of professionalism in the text is often undesirable. So, in a newspaper article, the use of highly specialized professionalisms cannot be justified. For example: At a mine, horizons are depleted, roads are skewed very untimely - only a specialist can explain what he had in mind
Professional vocabulary should not be used in book styles because of its colloquial coloration. For example: It is necessary to ensure that the filling of the furnaces does not exceed two hours, and melting in the furnace sat no longer than 6 hours 30 minutes (better: It is necessary to ensure that the loading of the furnaces lasts no more than two hours, and the melting - six and a half).
It is also unacceptable to use jargon-professional words in book styles that are used in oral speech as unofficial variants of scientific terms and usually have a reduced expressive coloring. Such professionalisms are sometimes mistakenly mistaken for scientific terms and included in works of a scientific style (they write: a doser instead of a dispenser, a tweeter instead of a tweeter, reciprocity instead of a reciprocity method, organic matter instead of organic fertilizers). The introduction of professional slang words into written speech reduces the style and often becomes the cause of inappropriate comic [Sandblasting makes it possible to thoroughly paint cars (better: Using a sandblasting machine, the surface of the car is well cleaned, which ensures high quality of its painting)]. In the 90s, the Russian literary language is actively replenished with colloquial vocabulary, and therefore professional and professional slang words appear on the pages of newspapers and magazines. Many professionalisms have become widely known, although until recently lexicologists did not include them in explanatory dictionaries. For example, the name “black box”, which means “protected onboard flight data storage device”, has ceased to be narrowly professional. When describing plane crashes, journalists freely use this professionalism, and comments on it appear only if the author of the article wants to depict the picture of the tragedy visually:
Among the debris of the colliding aircraft scattered within a radius of ten kilometers, the emergency commission found two "black boxes" with the Il-76T and one of the same device from the Saudi "Boeing".
Housed in the strongest orange metal cases, these devices can withstand 1000-degree temperatures and 100-fold overload on impact without damage.
1.8.7. Slang vocabulary
Slang vocabulary, unlike professional vocabulary, denotes concepts that already have names in the common language. Jargon is a type of colloquial speech used by a certain circle of native speakers united by a common interest, occupation, position in society. In modern Russian, youth jargon, or slang, is distinguished (from the English slang - words and expressions used by people of certain professions or age groups). A lot of words and expressions have come from slang to colloquial speech: crib, cram, tail (academic debt), swim (answer poorly on the exam), fishing rod (satisfactory grade), etc. The emergence of many jargon is associated with the desire of young people to brighter, more emotionally express their attitude to the subject, phenomenon. Hence such evaluative words: awesome, awesome, cool, laugh, go crazy, get high, plow, plow, sunbathe, etc. All of them are common only in oral speech and are often absent in dictionaries.
However, there are many words and phrases in slang that are understandable only to the initiated. Let's take as an example a humoresque from the newspaper "University Life" (09.12.1991).
Synopsis of one cool student at one downhole lecture.
Hammurabi was not sickly politician. He rolled the barrel at the surrounding Kents. At first, he ran into Larsa, but specifically broke off. Fighting with Larsa was not to show the sparrows figurines, especially since their Rim-Sin was such a fancy wardrobe that he glued Hammurabi's beard without any problems. However, it was not so easy to take on a show-off, Larsa became purely violet for him, and he turned the arrows to Mari. He managed to throw noodles on the ears of Zimrilim, who was also a tough man, but in this case clicked his beak. Having zakorifanivshis, they ran into Eshnunu, Uruk and Isshin, who for a long time sprung their tail, but flew by like a flock of rasps.
For the uninitiated, such a set of slang words turns out to be an insurmountable obstacle to understanding the text, so we will translate this passage into literary language.
Hammurabi was a skilled politician. He pursued an expansionist policy. At first, the ruler of Babylon tried to capture Larsa, but he failed. It was not so easy to fight Larsa, especially since their ruler Rim-Sin was such a cunning diplomat that he easily forced Hammurabi to abandon his intention. But Hammurabi continued his campaigns of conquest in order to expand the territory of his state. And, leaving for a while the attempts to conquer Larsa, he changed the political course, and the Babylonian army rushed north. He managed to conclude an alliance with the ruler Mari Zimrilim, who was also a good politician, but in this case yielded to the military force of Hammurabi. The combined forces were subdued by Eshnunu, Uruk and Isshin, who stubbornly defended themselves, but were eventually defeated.
When comparing these so different "editions" one cannot deny the first, saturated with jargon, in liveliness, imagery. However, the inappropriateness of the use of slang in a history lecture is obvious.
The expressiveness of the slang vocabulary contributes to the fact that words from jargons pass into the national colloquial everyday speech, which is not bound by strict literary norms. Most of the words that have become widespread outside the jargons can be considered jargon only from a genetic point of view, and at the moment of their consideration they already belong to the vernacular. This explains the inconsistency of labels to jargon in explanatory dictionaries. So, in the "Dictionary of the Russian language" S.I. Ozhegov to fall asleep in the meaning of “fail” (colloquial), in the meaning of “to get caught, to be caught in something” (simple), and in the “Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language”, ed. D.N. Ushakov, it has marks (colloquially, from thieves' argo). At Ozhegov to cram (colloquial), and at Ushakov, a litter was given to this word (school argo). Many jargonisms in the latest dictionaries are given with a stylistic mark (simple) [for example, in Ozhegov: ancestors - "parents" (simple, joking); tail - "the remainder, the unfulfilled part of something, for example exams" (simple); salaga - “newcomer, recruit, younger in relation to the elders” (simple.), etc.].
Slang vocabulary is inferior to literary vocabulary in accuracy, which determines its inferiority as a means of communication. The meaning of jargon tends to vary depending on the context. For example, the verb kemarit can mean dozing, sleeping, resting; the verb to run over - to threaten, extort, persecute, take revenge; the adjective cool means good, attractive, interesting, reliable, etc .; the same is the meaning of the word slaughter and a number of others. All this convinces of the inexpediency of replacing the rich, vibrant Russian language with slang.
A special socially limited group of words in modern Russian is camp jargon, which is used by people placed in special living conditions. He reflected the terrible life in places of detention: a convict (prisoner), veneer or shmon (search), gruel (soup), tower (execution), informer (informer), knock (inform) and so on. Such jargon is used in the realistic description of camp life by former "prisoners of conscience" who were given the opportunity to openly recall the repressions. Let us quote one of the most talented Russian writers who did not manage to realize their creative potential for well-known reasons:
If you are called on watch, it means - expect trouble. Either a punishment cell follows, or some other dirty trick ...
True, this time they didn’t put me in a punishment cell, and they didn’t even “deprive me of a stall”. "To deprive by a stall" or "to deprive by a date" - these are commanding formulas that have arisen as a result of a tendency to conciseness, this is 50% savings in expression. "To deprive the right to use the stall" or "... a date." The bosses, completely tormented by the desire for the ideal, had to quite often resort to a saving tongue twister, and, naturally, they tried to save seconds. So, something unusual awaited me. Entering, I saw several guards and at the head of them - "Regime". We, too, were inclined to brevity, albeit for other reasons: when danger approached, it was easier and more profitable to whisper: "Regime!" Than to say: "Deputy head of the camp for the regime."
Besides Regime, the guards and me, there was someone else in the room, and I immediately stared at him.
(Julius Daniel)
From this passage, you can get an idea about the very "mechanism" of the appearance of these strange jargon. I would like to hope that there will be no extralinguistic conditions for their consolidation in the Russian language and that they will quickly become part of a passive vocabulary.
This cannot be said about the language of the underworld (thieves, vagabonds, bandits). This slang variety of the language is defined by the term argo (fr. Argot - closed, inactive). Argo is a secret, artificial language of criminals (thieves' music), known only to initiates and also existing only orally. Certain argotisms are spreading outside the argot: thug, mokrushnik, feather (knife), raspberry (brothel), split, nix, fraer, etc., but at the same time they practically pass into the category of vernacular vocabulary and are given in dictionaries with the appropriate stylistic marks: "Vernacular", "rude vernacular".
1.8.8. The use of slang vocabulary in the literary language
The emergence and spread of jargon in speech is assessed as a negative phenomenon in the life of society and the development of the national language. However, the introduction of jargon in the literary language in exceptional cases permissible: this vocabulary may be needed by writers to create speech characteristics of characters or journalists describing life in the colonies. To emphasize that jargon in such cases are quoted “in quotation”, the author usually encloses them in quotation marks. For example: "Pahany", "Bugry" and others (title of a newspaper article); ... People are "put down" by the sentence of thieves for various sins: snitching, non-payment of a card debt, insubordination to "authority", for having "handed over" accomplices during the investigation, that has relatives in law enforcement agencies ... (Trud. 1991. Nov 27)
Many famous writers have been wary of jargon. So, I. Ilf and E. Petrov, when republishing the novel "The Twelve Chairs", abandoned some jargon. The desire of writers to protect the literary language from the influence of jargon is dictated by the need for an implacable struggle against them: it is unacceptable that slang vocabulary is popularized through fiction.
In journalistic texts, it is possible to refer to argotisms in materials of a certain topic. For example, under the heading "Crime Plots":
The "cream" of the underworld - "thieves in law" ... Below are the usual thieves, who in the colony are called "otritsalovka" or "wool". The life credo of the “denialist” is to oppose the demands of the administration and, conversely, to do everything that the authorities prohibit ... And at the base of the colony pyramid is the bulk of the convicts: “men”, “hard workers”. These are those who sincerely embarked on the path of correction.
In rare cases, jargon can be used in newspaper materials with an acute satirical focus.
1.8.9. Stylistically unjustified use of jargon
The use of jargon in non-satirical contexts, dictated by the authors' desire to revive the narrative, is regarded as a stylistic flaw. So, the author got carried away with a play on words, calling his note as follows: The artist Dali was completely ofonarel (the article describes an unusual sculpture of the artist - in the form of a lamp, which gave the correspondent grounds for a pun: a lantern - ofonarel). For a reader who does not know the jargon, such words become a mystery, but the language of the newspaper should be available to everyone.
Deserves censure and enthusiasm for the slang vocabulary of journalists writing about crimes, murders and robberies in a humorous tone. The use of argot and slang words in such cases gives the speech an inappropriate, cheerful shade. The tragic events are described as a fascinating incident. For modern correspondents of "Moskovsky Komsomolets" this style has become familiar. Let's give just one example.
On Tverskaya Street last Thursday, police picked up two girls who tried "Push" the passers-by the VCR at the gold... It turned out that the girls cleaned out the night before apartment on Osenny Boulevard. (...) A 19-year-old homeless woman acted as the ringleader ...
The downward trend in the style of newspaper articles is clearly demonstrated by many newspapers. This leads to the use of jargon and argotism even in serious materials, and for short notes, reports, the style, "colored" with reduced vocabulary, has become common. For instance:
And I will not give you the corridor
There is a new leap in the Kremlin: to endow fraternal Belarus with access to the sea through Kaliningrad. “We are going to come to an agreement with the Poles and get their consent to build a section of the highway through their territory,” the Russian President said just now.
However, this "sign of the times" does not meet with the sympathy of stylists who do not approve of the mixing of styles, which creates inappropriate comic in such publications.
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Types of vocabulary in terms of the relationship between form and lexical
meaning
It also makes sense to remember the types of words in terms of the ratio of their lexical
meanings and forms.
From the school course of the Russian language, we know about such vocabulary groups as synonyms, antonyms,
homonyms and paronyms, but now it makes sense to clarify some with
knowledge of them.
From this point of view, words are divided into synonyms, antonyms, homonyms and paronyms. These types
the vocabulary is familiar to you: you studied them in high school, but we need to review them,
to draw attention to some of their features that are new to you.
Sino
nims
these words are different in form, but close in meaning.
Synonyms are divided into linguistic and verbal:
linguistic synonyms
–
words, the semantic similarity of which appears without context,
because it is fixed in the very system of the language. It is recorded in dictionaries
–
lexemes can
defined in dictionary entries through each other:
strong
–
lasting
,
lie
–
O
swindle
,
strike
–
speech synonyms
–
these are words, the semantic similarity of which is manifested only in
context, therefore they are called contextual. Contextual synonyms are
incomplete, partial, synonymous sign can be
b is presented in them with different
degree of completeness:
fruit
;
little
tiny
,
seethes
–
black
–
Both linguistic and speech synonyms can have different stylistic colors, refer to
different styles of speech. Such synonyms are called
stylistic:
eat, eat, eat,
eat, gulp, hawala
... These may include phraseological units:
lie, misinform,
lie, whistle, hang noodles, chase a blizzard
Antonyms
these words are different in form and opposite in meaning
... Antonyms too
can be divided into linguistic, embedded already in the language system
(wicked
–
kind, sleep
–
stay awake, love
–
hate, up
–
etc.) and speech, which become
antonyms only in context:
new
–
dilapidated, real
–
fabulous
th, timid
–
proud,
gold
–
Antonyms can also be stylistic and phraseological:
rush
–
on the run
fall asleep
,
work up your sleeves
–
loafing around, beating up
words are the same in form and different in meaning.
Omoni
we are divided into several types.
Actually
or absolute homonyms
–
these are words of one part of speech, which and
are written and pronounced the same way:
(spring)
–
(at the door)
(chemical element)
–
(frame)
–
(salary), etc.
words that are pronounced the same way, but according to
-
are spelled differently:
mushroom
–
flu
,
Homographs
words that are spelled the same, but pronounced according to
-
differently, mostly
due to the difference in stress:
proteins
–
whites
,
hover
–
P
and rit
,
write
–
write
,
take a break
–
before you whine
Omoforms
manifestation of grammatical homonymy
–
different grammatical forms
one word or different words of different parts of speech, coinciding in
form:
(genitive singular with
noun and plural
nominative number),
(possessive pronoun and imperative verb
inclination),
(numeral and imperative verb,
(noun and
verb infinitive), etc.
Paronyms
these are the words to
which are similar in form (sound and spelling), common
roots and common in meaning, but nevertheless different in form and meaning. How
as a rule, these words have different suffixes, which give different shades of meaning
cognate words:
claim
sleepy
(cleverly and beautifully done)
artificial
(not natural,
man-made),
artistic
(distinguished by artistry, artistic talent)
artistic
(pertaining to artists, peculiar to artists),
fragrant
(having
aroma, pleasantly smelling)
aromatic
(imparting aroma),
(phone owner,
radio point or subscription)
–
subscription
(the right to use what under the contract
-
anything for a fee in
for a specified period), etc.
The confusion of paronyms is
one of the most common speech errors.
The vocabulary of the language is sensitive to all processes taking place in the public mind, and
reflects both positive and negative, which characterizes public consciousness
Currently. Therefore, it is so important to pay attention.
respectful, respectful attitude to the word, use
words in strict accordance with the concept that this word denotes.
(6 points out of 6)
The main unifying factor of the nation is ...
Economy
The culture
Complete the definition by entering
one word.
A vocabulary that is understandable to any native speaker, regardless of his age, occupation,
education, the place in which he lives,
–
this is ____________ vocabulary.
common
I am
-
Vocabulary used in informal, informal communication, mainly oral
speeches
–
this is _____________ vocabulary.
colloquial
-
The set of words used in oral communication within a particular social group,
–
it _____________.
jargon
-
territorially fixed oral speech of people who do not know the norms of literary
language,
–
it _____________.
vernacular
-
Words that have a similarity in form (sound and
scripture), common roots and common in
meaning, but nevertheless different in form and meaning
–
Common vocabulary
1. Common vocabulary.
The most important part of the dictionary of the Russian language in all its diversity
is common vocabulary. She represents something
the lexical core, without which the language is inconceivable, communication is impossible, its
make up words that are expressions of the most necessary vital
important concepts.
Common vocabulary is the backbone of a national literary dictionary,
the most necessary lexical material for expressing thoughts in Russian,
the fund on the basis of which further
improvement and enrichment of vocabulary. The vast majority of incoming
in it the words are stable in their use and used in all styles
The vocabulary of the Russian language contains words that are known and understandable
everything and are used both in oral and written speech.
For example: water, earth, forest, bread, go, eat, eat, winter, bright,
words that are stylistically neutral, ᴛ.ᴇ. such words that
can be heard equally in a scientific report, and in everyday conversation,
which can be read both in a business document and in a friendly letter. Of such
words in Russian are the overwhelming majority. They can also be called
commonly used in the full sense of the word.
In addition to stylistically neutral words in common vocabulary
words are also highlighted that can be used by all, but no longer in
anyway. So, the words voditsa, simpleton, magazine, mustachioed, courtyard,
word, etc., as opposed to stylistically neutral words, or
have expression, or are emotionally colored. Shades of emotional
colors are created by various diminutive and
magnifying-derogatory suffixes (vod-itz-a, journal-chik, dvor-ik,
words-echk-o), and expressiveness is conveyed by the special figurativeness of words
speech (simpleton, mustachioed, reckless man, dodger). Using words like this, the speaker
expresses his positive or negative attitude towards the subject,
phenomenon. For this reason, these words are almost never found in a scientific report, in
business document. The use of expressive-emotional words
limited to certain styles of speech: more often they are used in
colloquial style, often - in journalistic style.
At the same time, the above does not mean that common vocabulary
constitutes a closed group of words, not subject to any influences.
On the contrary, it can be replenished with words that previously had limited
(dialectal or professional) sphere of use. So the words
burning, motley, loser, tyrant, frequenter, boring and
some. dr.
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back in the first half of the 19th century. were not known to all speakers of
Russian: the scope of their use was limited to professional
(lively, motley) or dialectal (loser, tyrant,
frequenter, boring) environment. In modern Russian, these words
are part of the common vocabulary.
On the other hand, some common words over time
can go out of general circulation narrow the scope of their use:
for example, the words goat, ᴛ.ᴇ. there is, disdain, ᴛ.ᴇ. dawn, now
found only in some Russian dialects. There are times when
a word from the national vocabulary goes into professional jargon.
Common vocabulary can be contrasted with the vocabulary of limited
usages - words that are used by people related by gender
occupations, professions, or territorial boundaries.
2. Uncommon vocabulary.
As part of this vocabulary, special, jargon and dialectal
vocabulary. Moreover, dialectal and slang vocabulary, in contrast to the special one,
lies outside the Russian literary language.
2.1. Dialect vocabulary
Words, the use of which is characteristic of people living in a certain
localities constitute dialect vocabulary. Dialect words are used
mainly in the oral form of speech, since the dialect itself is ϶ᴛᴏ the main
in the manner of oral colloquial speech of rural residents.
Dialectal vocabulary differs from common vocabulary not only more
narrow sphere of use, but also a number of phonetic, grammatical and
lexical and semantic features. According to these features
there are several types of dialectisms:
1) phonetic dialectisms - words that reflect phonetic
features of this dialect: bochka, Vanka, tipyatok (instead of a barrel,
Vanka, boiling water) - South Russian dialectisms; chicken, tsyasy, human,
nemchi (instead of chicken, clock, man, Germans) - dialectisms,
reflecting the sound features of some northwestern dialects;
2) grammatical dialectisms - words that have other than
literary language, grammatical characteristics or differing
from common vocabulary by morphological structure. So, in
southern dialects neuter nouns are often used
as feminine nouns (the whole field, such a thing, I feel
the cat whose meat it ate); in northern dialects, forms in
I will cellar, in a club, in a table (instead of in a cellar in a club, in a table);
instead of common words, sideways, rain, run, burrow, etc.
in dialect speech, words are used with the same root, but different
morphological structure: sideburn, dozhzhok, bech, burrows, etc .;
3) lexical dialectisms - words, both in form and in meaning
different from the words of common vocabulary: kochet - rooster,
the other day - the other day, gutar - talk, inda - even, etc. Among
lexical dialectisms, local names of things and
concepts common in the area. These words are called
ethnographisms. For example, ethnographism is the word paneva - so
in Ryazan, Tambov, Tula and some other regions
they call a special kind of skirt.
A dialect word may differ from a commonly used one not in form, but
value; in this case they speak of ossemantic dialectisms. So,
the word up in some southern dialects is called a ravine, the verb to yawn
used in the meaning of shouting, calling, guessing - in the meaning of recognizing someone
either in the face, etc.
Dialectisms are often used as means of expression in
works of fiction - for speech characteristics
characters, to convey the local flavor͵ for more accurate, from the point
2.2. Professional and special vocabulary
Words, the use of which is characteristic of people of certain professions,
having a sphere of their use any special branch of science
or techniques, make up professional and special vocabulary. These two
definitions are necessary in order that in the general stratum of such
to distinguish between words, firstly, officially adopted and regularly
used special terms, ᴛ.ᴇ. special vocabulary and, secondly,
characteristic of many professions expressively rethought,
altered words and expressions taken from the general circulation.
The distinction between special terms and professional words can be
show in the following examples. In metallurgy, the term crust means
the remains of solidified metal in the ladle, the workers call these remnants
goat, ᴛ.ᴇ. in this case, stuck is the official term, goat -
professional. Physicists jokingly call the synchrophasotron a pan,
sandpaper - ϶ᴛᴏ official, terminological name, and sandpaper
- professionalism, widely used in the non-professional sphere and
The specific terminology usually `` covers '' all of this specific
the field of science or technology: all basic concepts, ideas, relationships are
its terminological name. Industry terminology
knowledge or production is created by conscious and purposeful
through the efforts of people - specialists in this field. Here acts
the tendency, on the one hand, to eliminate doublets and ambiguous
terms, and on the other - to the establishment of strict boundaries of each term and
its clear relations with the rest of the units that form this
terminological system.
Professionalisms are less regular. Since they are born spoken
people engaged in any profession, they rarely form a system. For
some objects and concepts have professional names, and for
others do not exist. The relationship between different professionalisms is also
are distinguished by a certain randomness, uncertainty. The values
professionalism, which usually arises on the basis of metaphorical
rethinking a word or phrase͵ often overlaps with the meanings
other professionalism. Finally, unlike special terms,
professionalism is brightly expressive, expressive, and this is their property with
is especially distinctly found in the coexistence with the official, book
a special term, the meaning of which this professionalism duplicates.
In some cases, professionalism can be used as
official terms; at the same time their expressiveness is somewhat erased,
however, the underlying metaphorical meaning is felt enough
well. For example, lever arm, gear tooth, pipe elbow, etc.
Although specialized and professional vocabulary has a limited scope
use, between it and common vocabulary there is
constant communication and interaction. The literary language is mastered by many
special terms: they begin to be used not in their characteristic
contexts, rethinking, thanks to which they cease to be terms,
or determinologized.
In fiction, professionalisms and special terms
are used not only for the speech characteristics of heroes, but also for more
an accurate description of production processes, relations between people in the office
and a professional setting.
2.3. Slang vocabulary
Words, the use of which is characteristic of people who form separate
social groups make up slang vocabulary. So, to the jargon of oeni -
itinerant traders who existed in Russia in the 19th century - were inherent
words: eye - house, meleeh - milk, sary - money, zetit - talk,
tinkering - building, etc.
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In the jargon of bursak - students of the bursa (school,
which combined cramming and stick discipline) - there were words
to sbondit - to steal, to bug - to exact strict, etc.
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Some
lexical elements that have penetrated in the past from social jargons into
common vocabulary, remain in it now. These include,
for example, the words swindler, smart, linden - fake and a certain. dr.
At the same time, the vocabulary of the youth is preserved and constantly updated -
school and student - jargon. It is important to note that for the current state
characteristic, for example, numerous anglicisms, often deliberately
distorted: girl - girl, friend - boy, white - white, truzer -
trousers, pants.
Some reinterpreted words of common use are slang
vocabulary: a car in the meaning of a car, to fade - to leave unnoticed, ancestors -
parents, etc., expressive formations such as a stipe, a stipe -
scholarship, awesome - very good, firm - top quality, fashionable and
Slang vocabulary has a narrow scope of use: it is used in
mostly among "their own", ᴛ.ᴇ. in dealing with people of the same social
circle as the speaker. In fiction, slang words
can serve for the speech characteristics of characters, used in
styling purposes. So, for example, in Granin's novel "After the Wedding" in speech
heroes - young people there are such jargon in nature,
words and phrases: "This is me in the order of chatter"; ʼʼ I would have gone myself instead of Igor, and
tipsʼʼ; ʼʼ She dances - shine! ʼʼ etc.
At the same time, the use of jargon in a literary text should be
justified both by the general concept of the work and stylistically.
Common vocabulary - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "Common vocabulary" 2017, 2018.
The vocabulary of the Russian language, depending on the nature of its functioning, is divided into two large groups, common and limited in scope. The first group includes words, the use of which is not limited either by the territory of distribution or by the type of activity of people; it forms the basis of the vocabulary of the Russian language. This includes the names of concepts and phenomena from different areas of society: political, economic, cultural, everyday life, which makes it possible to single out various thematic groups of words in the national vocabulary. Moreover, they are all understandable and accessible to every native speaker and can be used in a variety of conditions, without any limitation.
The vocabulary of a limited sphere of use is widespread within a certain area or in a circle of people united by profession, social characteristics, common interests, pastime, etc. Such words are used mainly in non-standardized oral speech. However, fictional speech does not refuse to use them: writers find in them the means to stylize fictional narration, to create the speech characteristics of the heroes.
Dialectisms, their types
Russian folk dialects, or dialects (gr. Dialektos - adverb, dialect), include a significant number of original folk words, known only in a certain area. Thus, in the south of Russia a stag is called a grasp, an earthen pot is called a wiggle, a bench is called a uslon, etc. Dialectisms are used mainly in the oral speech of the peasant population; in an official setting, speakers of dialects usually switch to the common language, the conductors of which are schools, radio, television, and literature.
The dialects captured the original language of the Russian people; in some features of local dialects, relic forms of Old Russian speech have been preserved, which are the most important source of restoration of historical processes that once affected our language.
Dialects differ from the national national language in various ways - phonetic, morphological, special word usage and completely original words unknown to the literary language. This gives grounds to group the dialectisms of the Russian language according to their common characteristics.
- Lexical dialectisms are words that are known only to the speakers of the dialect and outside of it, which do not have either phonetic or derivational variants. For example, in the southern Russian dialects, the words buryak (beet), tsibulya (onion), gutorit (speak) are used; in the north - sash (belt), basque (beautiful), golitsy (mittens). In common language, these dialectisms have equivalents that call identical objects, concepts. The presence of such synonyms distinguishes lexical dialectisms from other types of dialect words.
- Ethnographic dialectisms are words that name objects that are known only in a certain area: shanezhki - pies prepared in a special way; shingles - special potato pancakes; nardek - watermelon syrup; manarka - a kind of outerwear; poneva is a kind of skirt, etc. Ethnographicisms do not and cannot have synonyms in the common language, since the objects themselves, designated by these words, have local distribution. As a rule, these are household items, clothing, food, plants, etc.
- Lexical-semantic dialectisms are words that have an unusual meaning in the dialect: bridge - floor in a hut; lips - mushrooms of all varieties, except for white ones; shout (someone) - call; himself - the owner, husband, etc. Such dialectisms act as homonyms for the words of the whole people, used with their inherent meaning in the language.
- Phonetic dialectisms - words that have received a special phonetic design in the dialect tsai (chai), chep (chain) - the consequences of "clinking" and "clinking" inherent in northern dialects; khverma (farm), bamaga (paper), passport (passport), zhist (life), etc.
- Word-building dialectisms are words that have received a special affix design in the dialect: peven (rooster), guska (goose), heifers (calf), strawberries (strawberries), bro (brother), shuryak (brother-in-law), darma (for free), always (always ), otkul (from where), pokeda (for now), evonny (his), theirs (theirs), etc.
- Morphological dialectisms are forms of inflection that are not characteristic of the literary language: soft endings for verbs in the 3rd person (go, go); the ending -am for nouns in the instrumental plural (under the pillars); the ending e of personal pronouns in the genitive singular case: at me, at you, etc.
Dialectal features are also characteristic of the syntactic level and the phraseological level, but they do not constitute the subject of study of the lexical system of the language.
The meaning of dialectisms in Russian
Throughout the history of the Russian literary language, its vocabulary was replenished with dialectisms. Among the words that go back to dialect sources, there are interstyle, neutral ones: strawberry, plow, smile, very much, and there are words with a bright emotional connotation: nonsense, confusion, lurid, boring, mumble, nip. Most of the dialectisms are associated with the life and life of the Russian peasantry, so that many words of these thematic groups in the modern literary language are dialectal in origin: farm laborer, grain grower, plowing, harrowing, greening, chilling, harrow, spindle, mowing, milkmaid, etc. Many of these dialectisms have entered the literary language in our time, an initiative, a new settler, a hype, a craftsman.
The replenishment of vocabulary with ethnographisms is especially characteristic of modern linguistic processes. So, in the 50s and 60s, Siberian ethnographisms were mastered in the literary language pad ', raspadok, shuga, etc., and even earlier - taiga, hill, eagle owl. (It was these words that once served as the reason for M. Gorky's speech against the writers' enthusiasm for "local sayings," but the language adopted them, and they are given in dictionaries without restrictive marks.)
One of the ways of penetration of dialectisms into common language is their use by writers depicting the life of the people, trying to convey the local flavor when describing the Russian village, to create vivid speech characteristics of the villagers. The best Russian writers turned to dialect sources: I. A. Krylov, A. S. Pushkin, N. V. Gogol, N. A, Nekrasov, I. S. Turgenev, L. N, Tolstoy and many others. In Turgenev, for example, words from the Oryol and Tula dialects are often found: bolshak, buchilo, medicine, potion, paneva, gutorit, etc .; he explained dialectisms incomprehensible to the reader in the notes.
Modern writers also willingly use dialectisms when describing rural life, landscapes, when conveying the way of speech of their heroes: All evenings, or even nights [the guys] sit by the firemen, speaking in a local way, and they bake opalikh, that is, potatoes (Abr.) ; “Don't eat, that's weakness,” the old woman remarked. - Maybe we will hack a chicken - cook broth? It's boring straight from the tin ... - Don't. And we really won't eat, but we will solve the hammer ... - At least wait a minute! .. One foot is already standing there, but it’s just shaking things up (Shuksh.).
It is necessary to distinguish, on the one hand, the "quotation" use of dialectisms, when the writer introduces them as an alien-style element and the reader understands that this is the speech of the heroes, and not the author; and, on the other hand, the use of dialectisms on an equal footing with the vocabulary of the literary language as stylistically unambiguous lexical means. The use of quotations of dialectisms in a literary text is usually stylistically motivated, if the author observes a sense of proportion and does not get carried away by local words incomprehensible to the reader, explaining those dialectisms that can complicate perception. The desire to introduce dialectisms into artistic speech on an equal footing with literary vocabulary most often receives a negative assessment. For example, let us refer to poetic lines, the meaning of which may remain a mystery to the reader: Swimming odal belozor; The slope with a screw is ants ...
Sometimes the writer is guided by the criterion of general accessibility, intelligibility of the text and therefore uses dialectisms that do not require clarification. But this leads to the fact that in works of art the same dialect words are often repeated, which have already become, in essence, "all-Russian" and have lost connection with a specific folk dialect. The introduction of dialectisms of this circle into the literary text is no longer perceived as an expression of the individual author's manner. Therefore, word artists should go beyond the "interdialect" vocabulary and look for their speech colors in local dialects.
Terminological and professional vocabulary
The use of terminological and professional vocabulary used by people of the same profession working in the same field of science and technology is socially limited. Terms and professionalisms are given in explanatory dictionaries marked "special", sometimes the scope of use of this or that term is indicated: physical, medical, mat., Astronomer. etc.
Each area of knowledge has its own terminological system.
Terms are words or phrases that name special concepts of any sphere of production, science, art. Each term is necessarily based on the definition (definition) of the reality it denotes, due to which the terms represent an accurate and at the same time succinct description of an object or phenomenon. Each branch of knowledge operates with its own terms, which constitute the essence of the terminological system of this science.
As part of the terminological vocabulary, several "layers" can be distinguished, differing in the sphere of use, in the features of the designated object.
- First of all, these are general scientific terms that are used in various fields of knowledge and belong to the scientific style of speech in general: experiment, adequate, equivalent, predict, hypothetical, progress, reaction, etc. These terms form a common conceptual foundation of various sciences and have the greatest frequency use.
- There are also different special terms that are assigned to certain scientific disciplines, branches of production and technology; for example in linguistics: subject, predicate, adjective, pronoun; in medicine: heart attack, fibroids, periodontitis, cardiology, etc. These terminologies concentrate the essence of each science. According to S. Bally, such terms "are ideal types of linguistic expression, towards which scientific language inevitably strives."
Terminological vocabulary, like no other, is informative. Therefore, in the language of science, terms are irreplaceable: they make it possible to formulate a thought succinctly and extremely accurately. However, the degree of terminology of scientific works is not the same. The frequency of the use of terms depends on the nature of the presentation, the addressing of the text.
Modern society requires such a form of description of the data obtained, which would make it possible to make the greatest discoveries of mankind the property of everyone. However, the language of monographic research is often so overloaded with terms that it becomes inaccessible even to a specialist. Therefore, it is important that the terminology used is sufficiently mastered by science, and the newly introduced terms need to be explained.
The spread of terms outside of scientific works has become a peculiar sign of our time. This gives grounds to talk about the general terminology of modern speech. So, many words that have terminological meaning have been widely used without any restrictions: tractor, radio, television, oxygen. Another group consists of words that have a dual nature: they can function both as terms and as common words. In the first case, these lexical units are characterized by special shades of meaning, giving them special accuracy and uniqueness. So, the word mountain, which means in wide use - a significant hill, rising above the surrounding area and having a number of figurative meanings, does not contain specific measurements of height in its interpretation.
In geographical terminology, where the distinction between the terms "mountain" and "hill" is essential, a clarification is given - an elevation of more than 200 m in height. Thus, the use of such words outside the scientific style is associated with their partial determinologization.
Professional vocabulary includes words and expressions used in various spheres of production, techniques, which, however, have not become common. Unlike terms - the official scientific names of special concepts, professionalisms function mainly in oral speech as "semi-official" words that do not have a strictly scientific character. Professionalisms are used to designate various production processes, tools of production, raw materials, manufactured products, etc. For example, in the speech of printers, professionalisms are used: ending - graphic decoration at the end of a book; antennae - an end with a thickening in the middle; tail - the bottom outer margin of the page; as well as the bottom edge of the book, opposite the head of the book.
Professionalisms can be grouped according to the sphere of their use: in the speech of athletes, miners, doctors, hunters, fishermen, etc. Technicisms are distinguished in a special group - highly specialized names used in the field of technology.
Professionalisms, in contrast to their commonly used equivalents, serve to differentiate related concepts used in a certain type of human activity. Thanks to this, professional vocabulary is indispensable for laconic and accurate expression of thoughts in special texts intended for a trained reader. However, the informative value of narrowly professional names is lost if a layman encounters them. Therefore, professionalism is appropriate, say, in large-circulation industry newspapers and is not justified in publications aimed at wide readership.
Certain professionalisms, often of a diminished stylistic sound, become part of the common vocabulary: give it up, storming, turnover. In fiction, professionalisms are used by writers with a certain stylistic task: as a characterological means in describing the life of people associated with any kind of production.
Professional slang vocabulary has a reduced expressive coloring and is used only in the oral speech of people of the same profession. For example, engineers jokingly call a self-recording device a sneak, in the speech of pilots there are words nedomaz, peremaz, meaning undershoot and flight of the landing mark, as well as a bubble; sausage - ball-probe, etc. Professional slang words, as a rule, have neutral synonyms devoid of colloquial connotation, which have a precise terminological meaning.
Professional slang vocabulary is not given in special dictionaries, unlike professionalisms, which are given with explanations and are often enclosed in quotation marks (to distinguish them graphically from terms): "hammered" font - a font that has been in typed galleys or stripes for a long time; "Foreign" font - letters of a font of a different style or size, mistakenly included in the typed text or heading.
1 Balli S. French stylistics. M., 1961 p. 144
Slang and argotic vocabulary
Jargon is a social type of speech used by a narrow circle of native speakers united by a common interest, occupation, position in society. In modern Russian, they distinguish youth jargon, or slang (English, slang - words and expressions used by people of certain professions or age groups), professional jargons, and camp jargon is also used in places of imprisonment.
The most widespread in our time is youth jargon, which is popular among students, student youth. Jargonisms, as a rule, have equivalents in the common language: hostel - hostel, stipe - scholarship, spurs - cribs, tail - academic debt, rooster - excellent (grade), fishing rod - satisfactory, etc. The emergence of many jargon is associated with the desire of young people to brighter, more emotionally express their attitude to the subject, phenomenon. Hence such evaluative words: awesome, awesome, iron, cool, laugh, go crazy, get high, plow, plow, sunbathe, etc. All of them are common only in oral speech and are often absent in dictionaries (which is associated with discrepancies in the writing of some jargon ).
The camp jargon, which was used by people placed in special living conditions, reflected the terrible life in places of detention: a convict (prisoner), veneer or shmon (search), gruel (soup), tower (execution), informer (informer), knock (inform ) and under. This layer of Russian vocabulary is still awaiting its study, although at present it is being archaized.
The speech of certain socially closed groups (thieves, vagrants, etc.) is called argo (fr. Argot - closed, inactive). This is a secret, artificial language of the underworld (thieves' music), known only to initiates and also existing only orally. Some argotisms are spreading outside the argot: thug, mokrushnik, feather (knife), raspberry (brothel), split, nix, fraer, etc., but at the same time they practically pass into the category of vernacular vocabulary and are given in dictionaries with the appropriate stylistic marks: "Vernacular", "rude vernacular".
Insufficient knowledge of jargon and argotisms, as well as their mobility in the language - migration from one lexical group to another - is reflected in the inconsistency of their interpretation by the compilers of dictionaries. So, in SI Ozhegov's Dictionary of the Russian Language, the word “fall asleep” in the meaning of “fail” is colloquial, and in the meaning of “getting caught, being caught in something” is colloquial. In the "Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language" edited by D. N. Ushakov, it is labeled "vernacular", "from thieves' argo". In addition, SI Ozhegov gives notes to most jargonisms that do not indicate their genetic roots: cramming - memorizing is meaningless (colloquial); ancestors - parents (colloquial, humorous); salaga - a young, inexperienced sailor (vernacular, playful).
Jargonisms and even more argotisms stand out for their vulgar coloring. However, their lexical inferiority is explained not only by stylistic decline, but also by a vague, imprecise meaning. The semantic structure of most slang words varies depending on the context. For example, the verb "kemarit" can mean "rest", "doze", "sleep"; the adjective iron has the meanings "reliable", "valuable", "beautiful", "faithful" and so on. Therefore, the use of jargon makes speech not only rude, obscene, but also careless, indistinct.
The emergence and spread of jargon and argotism is rightly assessed as a negative phenomenon in the development of the national language. Therefore, the language policy is to refuse to use them. However, writers and publicists have the right to refer to these layers of vocabulary in search of realistic colors when describing the corresponding sides of our reality. At the same time, jargon and argotisms should be introduced into artistic speech only in quotations, as well as dialectisms.
Self-test questions
- What is the difference between common vocabulary and vocabulary with a limited scope of use?
- What is the definition of dialectism?
- What types of dialectisms stand out in the lexical system of the Russian language?
- What is the use of dialectisms as a stylistic medium?
- What words are related to terminological vocabulary?
- What words relate to professional vocabulary?
- How do terms differ from professionalisms?
- What is jargon?
- What is Argotism?
- What is the manifestation of the lexical inferiority of jargon in comparison with words belonging to the general vocabulary?
Exercises
32. In an excerpt from the story of D. V. Grigorovich "Anton-Goremyka" select dialectisms. Determine their types, select common synonyms for them. Explain the reasons for the writer's appeal to dialectisms.
- How not to be! anything happens, my brother, - the Yaroslavets began again, - don't be angry ... Here, approximately, - he added after a silence, - in our neighborhood, about five miles away, and that won't be, there was a free man, and his boyfriend, his son, was such and such a noble, meek, hard-working, what to say, a guy for everything and about everything! . roofs and houses were painted, so they made up for; and in the winter business or in the autumn they walked through the swamps, they shot all kinds of game and rabbits: all around them there were such and such swamps, and, and, and! the passion of the Lord! I’m not going to walk! these are the swamps! Well, OK; and I say, the peasants were rich, not that, roughly, some kind of naked ... The old man, where, they say, he knew a lot about the places where the game was found; where he used to go, rake in your hands ...
33. Highlight dialectisms, professionalisms, colloquial words in the text. Refer to dictionaries for help.
Philip poured the lingonberries with water, plugged them with a clump of cut grass and girded one, hanging on a spatula, himself, and gave the other to Karev.
The braids clinked, and the mowers parted halfway.
- Our second half-howl, - yesterday old man approached Philip. - We measure, to whom from the edge.
Philip grabbed the ossie, and began to get over with his hands.
- My end, - said the old man, - me from the edge.
- Well, my roundabout, - stretched Philip, - the most convenience.<...>
- Brady after him in someone else's ford, - he pointed to Karev at the old man, - measure and raise the scythe.
Karev wandered off, and his boots were covered in tar: a gathering of grasses and dew adhered to them.
“And if you wander,” the old man explained, “keep it straight and try to follow the flowers, you’d better not go into yours and don’t touch someone else’s.”
They walked along a strange howl and began to measure. Karev estimated the meadow he had already divided with the old man and measured out seven for himself, and three for the old man, then he stood on the grout and, hanging his cap on the butt of his braid, lifted it up.
Through the dew one could see a wide cut-out trail.
(S. A. Yesenin.)
34. In excerpts from the novel by M. Sholokhov, Virgin Soil Upturned, highlight dialectisms. Explain what caused the replacement by the author of some words (they are given in brackets) when the novel is republished.
1. Clever people (isho) suggested at the front, returned as a Bolshevik. 2. It would be necessary (after) after dinner (to come) to come. 3. Nikita Khoprov “helped” Lapshinov: he plowed for free, (dragged) harrowed, pushed Lapshin's wheat to the thresher while standing (as a bison) as a filler. 4. He will again be on (entot) this year. 5. I went from the base in new trousers with stripes, boots (with snail) with a creak. 6. I began to listen to agronomists (listen). 7. Fedotka ... (chirping) jumping on one leg, shouted. 8. Grasses grew violently, (it was understood) birds and animals steamed.
35. Highlight professionalisms, jargon, common words in the text. Find common synonyms for them. For help, refer to the explanatory dictionaries.
If you are called on watch, it means - expect trouble. Either a punishment cell follows, or some other nasty thing. There can be only one exception: you go on a date through the watch. But this is always known in advance. I was summoned to watch unexpectedly. I went there without any enthusiasm and, of course, my forebodings were justified. True, this time they didn’t put me in a punishment cell, and they didn’t even “deprive me of a stall”. "To deprive by a stall" or "to deprive by a date" - these are commanding formulas that have arisen as a result of a tendency to conciseness, this is 50% savings in expression. "To deprive the right to use the stall" or "... a date." The bosses, completely tormented by the desire for the ideal, had to quite often resort to a saving tongue twister, and, naturally, they tried to save seconds. So, something unusual awaited me. Entering, I saw several guards and at the head of them - "Regime". We, too, were inclined to brevity, albeit for other reasons: when danger approached, it was easier and more profitable to whisper: "Regime!" Than to say: "Deputy head of the camp for the regime."
Besides Regime, the guards and me, there was someone else in the room, and I immediately stared at him.
(Y. Daniel.)
36. Highlight jargon and professional jargon in the text. For help, refer to the explanatory dictionaries.
The phone rang. Bear picked up the phone. Sparrow pulled the chair closer to listen to what they were talking about.
The conversation was empty: the mother asked Mishka to go to the dacha, dug up a vegetable garden. Mishka mumbled, and Sparrow listened attentively, even put his hand to his ear. He shook his head in displeasure.
“You’re talking shitty with your mother.” If you die, you will regret it.
- She's still young.
- Anyway, he will die someday ... Is her birthday soon?
- In August.
- You give her a gold watch and a cake with a figure.
- Yes, she has a watch.
Sparrow waved his hand.
- You don’t understand! .. Why are you smiling? Don't laugh, I am sure I say. Do you think anyone needs it besides mommy? You will see. You will also remember my words.<...>
Sparrow brushed the rubbish off the stool, wiped his palms on his robes and sat down at the table. I took a dried stencil from the oven. With a sharpened handle, I split the brushes into three stripes. Then he pecked into a jar of paint with a brush, squeezed out the excess on the edge: straightened the hairs.
He began to write, as always, from the middle - for symmetry. The letters fit well on a dry, boiler-warm stencil. They turned out to be wide, spreading.
Usually there were no stencils in the warehouse, and driving a car for them in the bureau is a whole story. We got by.
They collected old stencils from the garbage, at worst, pulled from the ownerless.
The dried stencils Sparrow and Mishka were greasy with dull silver and put back to dry - now on the cauldron. In a day or two, the stencil went to work.
In the Russian language there are several lexical layers, each of which differs in the sphere of use and purpose. First of all, the vocabulary of the language is divided into two large groups: general people and those with a limited area of use. Let's get acquainted with examples of common words in Russian. Such vocabulary is used in both written and oral speech in a variety of situations.
Terminology
Common words, examples of which will be given below, are the main wealth of the language. They are understandable to everyone, regardless of place of residence, occupation or profession. Without such a layer, which constitutes the lexical core of the language, its very existence would be impossible.
Examples of words in common vocabulary are: cat, apartment, illusion, literature, walk, run, beautiful, smart, wide, green, we, they, fast, fun. As you can see, this includes words of various parts of speech, using which you can describe any life situation.
Varieties
Examples of common words are quite diverse. First of all, a group of stylistically neutral ones stands out, which can be used by native speakers in any style of speech. Features of styles and examples of vocabulary are presented in the table.
a brief description of | Examples of common words |
|
Colloquial | Designed for communication in everyday life | I understand, teacher, school, pencil, preparation, dishes, mechanism, parents, lessons |
Accuracy, reliability, consistency. Style is rich in terms | Evolution, parallelism, synopsis, meridian, hypotenuse |
|
It is used for writing memoranda, minutes, similar documents | The undersigned, statement, receipt, undertake, enclose, circumstances, due to |
|
Journalistic | The purpose of use is not only information, but also emotional impact. | As reported, the parliamentarian is expected, elections, construction, construction, opening, it is expected |
Art | Used for writing literary works | Soulful, exalted, overthrown, majestic |
So, regardless of the style of speech, the main purpose of public words is to organize communication. Thanks to them, native speakers understand each other, can express their thoughts both in oral dialogue and in writing.
There are some tricky points. So, the words inherent in the scientific style, in particular the terms, may not be clear to everyone, but nevertheless, they refer specifically to the national layer. Why? Because the ability to understand one or another of them depends on the education of a person, and not on his belonging to any profession or occupation. So, the literary term "epithet" can be unclear only to those who did not study well at school.
Expression of emotion
From the point of view of use, common words, examples of which are given below, are divided into the following groups:
- neutral (mom, peace, run, good, emotion, cat, apartment, like, green, high-quality and many others);
- stylistically colored (pretty, water, time, old lady).
If the first group of words simply conveys information, then the second expresses the attitude of the author. Let's compare:
- The spring water was cool.
- The water in the spring was cool.
The first sentence has a neutral stylistic connotation, the second is more emotional - the author shows that the water he drank from the spring is very good.
Also, thanks to the use of words, negative shades of meaning can be conveyed. Let's compare:
- He glittered menacingly with his eyes.
- His eyes sparkled menacingly.
Differences from dialectisms
Let's consider examples of common words and dialect words, as well as their differences. For ease of perception, the data are placed in a table.
How to distinguish between the commonly used lexical layer and dialect words?
- Scope of use. If common words are understood by everyone and are used everywhere, then dialect vocabulary is present in the speech of certain groups of people living in villages and towns, that is, it is territorially limited. So, an educated person studying dialects may well know what the words "guska" (goose), "tsibulya" (onion), "pellet" (ladder) mean, even use them in their lectures. But these words will still be dialectal, since they are not used in live colloquial speech, being replaced by literary synonyms.
- Lexical dialectisms characteristic of a certain area have a literary synonym and can be replaced with it: "sash" - belt, "pads" - attic, "veksha" - squirrel.
There are also ethnographic dialectisms that do not have synonyms - common words, examples are: "manarka" - this is how a woman's coat is called in Tatarstan; "Shanezhki" - potato pies. These words, like the phenomena they signify, are found only in certain dialects.
The meaning of dialectisms
Why do native speakers need local dialects? The use of such words often helps the authors of literary texts create special poetics, convey mood, and express the character's image more vividly. At the same time, writers try not to oversaturate their text with dialectisms, otherwise the readers will not understand much. We actively used similar vocabulary:
- Turgenev (biryuk is an unsociable person, the top is a ravine).
- Mamin-Sibiryak (feet - shoes, zaplot - fence, battle - torment).
- Sholokhov (clean-up - pasture, cut - hit).
- Yesenin (lake sledge - edge).
- Prishvin (Elan is a swampy area of a swamp).
Most often, dialectal vocabulary is used in the speech of characters and is supplied with author's comments and explanations so that the reader understands what is at stake.
Slang
We looked at what words are called common. Examples have also been given. Now let's figure out what jargon is, what is their role and specificity of use.
This is a special layer of vocabulary that is used in the speech of certain circles of people:
- Youth: "discach" (party, disco), "chick" (girl), "dude" (young man), "ancestors" (parents).
- Computer geeks: “buggy” (works with problems), “prog” (PC program), “keyboard” (keyboard), “hack” (hack).
- Prisoners: "lean back" (free), "ksiva" (passport), "fraer" (a former prisoner who is outside the prison), "correspondence" (a girl who is waiting for a prisoner).
- Schoolchildren: "teacher" (teacher), "couple" (grade "2"), "nerd" (excellent student, diligent student), "spur" (cheat sheet).
Many of these words are understandable to native speakers, others remain a mystery to them, but a distinctive feature of jargon is their use in speech by a certain circle of people.
The meaning of jargon
Such words have a bright emotional connotation, therefore, they are often used by writers to create a vivid image of a character. In oral speech, they help people of a certain circle to better understand each other.
Here are examples of common words and jargon: "hawka" - food, "donkey, donkey" - browser "Internet Explorer", "teapot" - an inexperienced PC user, "mesaga" - a message.
This vocabulary makes communication between representatives of a certain circle more convenient and simple.
Professionalism
Here are examples of common and non-common words, professionalisms present in the speech of representatives of certain professions:
- In the field of printing you can find "paws" - quotes, "head" - a heading.
- Hunters use the words "hang on the tail" - to chase prey with hounds, "pest" - an old bear, "log" - a wolf's tail.
- Police officers also use professionalism: "lost" - a missing person; "Hanging" is a case that cannot be investigated.
This vocabulary is understandable only to a certain circle of persons united by professional activity.
Variety of words
Here are examples of sentences with common words (grade 5):
- On the table was a vase with beautiful flowers: roses, carnations and lilies.
- Anyone who wants to be happy should study well.
- Mom made a delicious salad and baked buns.
Every word in these sentences is understandable to any native speaker. Without them, communication, both oral and written, would be impossible. That is why such a lexical layer is the richness of the language, its basis. Of course, dialectisms, jargon and professionalisms are interesting in their own way, but without them the Russian language could exist. And without common words, examples of which were given above, this would have been impossible - people would have ceased to understand each other.
The national vocabulary includes a huge number of words of all parts of speech, both independent and official. They are used in writing and speaking, to create scientific papers and journal articles. The more such words a person knows, the more saturated and interesting his vocabulary, the brighter and more expressive he can express his opinion.
We looked at common words, examples of words and their meanings. This lexical layer is very important, because it is thanks to such words that native speakers have the opportunity to freely communicate and understand each other. There are a lot of similar words, they refer to different parts of speech, can be both neutral and have a certain stylistic coloring, making communication richer and more interesting.