When did the Crimean War begin? Crimean War briefly

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In 1854, diplomatic negotiations between the warring parties were held in Vienna through the mediation of Austria. England and France, as peace conditions, demanded a ban on Russia keeping a naval fleet on the Black Sea, Russia’s renunciation of the protectorate over Moldavia and Wallachia and claims to patronage of the Sultan’s Orthodox subjects, as well as “freedom of navigation” on the Danube (that is, depriving Russia of access to its mouths).

On December 2 (14), Austria announced an alliance with England and France. On December 28, 1854 (January 9, 1855), a conference of the ambassadors of England, France, Austria and Russia opened, but the negotiations did not produce results and were interrupted in April 1855.

On January 14 (26), 1855, the Sardinian Kingdom joined the allies and concluded an agreement with France, after which 15 thousand Piedmontese soldiers went to Sevastopol. According to Palmerston's plan, Sardinia was to receive Venice and Lombardy, taken from Austria, for participation in the coalition. After the war, France concluded an agreement with Sardinia, in which it officially assumed the corresponding obligations (which, however, were never fulfilled).

On February 18 (March 2), 1855, Russian Emperor Nicholas I died suddenly. The Russian throne was inherited by his son, Alexander II. After the fall of Sevastopol, differences arose in the coalition. Palmerston wanted to continue the war, Napoleon III did not. The French emperor began secret (separate) negotiations with Russia. Meanwhile, Austria announced its readiness to join the allies. In mid-December, she presented Russia with an ultimatum:
Replacement of the Russian protectorate over Wallachia and Serbia with the protectorate of all the great powers;
establishing freedom of navigation at the mouths of the Danube;
preventing the passage of anyone's squadrons through the Dardanelles and the Bosporus into the Black Sea, prohibiting Russia and Turkey from keeping a navy in the Black Sea and having arsenals and military fortifications on the shores of this sea;
Russia's refusal to patronize the Sultan's Orthodox subjects;


A few days later, Alexander II received a letter from Frederick William IV, who urged the Russian emperor to accept Austrian terms, hinting that otherwise Prussia might join the anti-Russian coalition. Thus, Russia found itself in complete diplomatic isolation, which, given the depletion of resources and the defeats inflicted by the allies, put it in an extremely difficult position.

On the evening of December 20, 1855 (January 1, 1856), a meeting convened by him took place in the tsar’s office. It was decided to invite Austria to omit the 5th paragraph. Austria rejected this proposal. Then Alexander II convened a secondary meeting on January 15 (27), 1855. The assembly unanimously decided to accept the ultimatum as preconditions for peace.

On February 13 (25), 1856, the Paris Congress began, and on March 18 (30) a peace treaty was signed.

Russia returned the city of Kars with a fortress to the Ottomans, receiving in exchange Sevastopol, Balaklava and other Crimean cities captured from it.
The Black Sea was declared neutral (that is, open to commercial traffic and closed to military vessels in peacetime), with Russia and the Ottoman Empire prohibited from having military fleets and arsenals there.
Navigation along the Danube was declared free, for which the Russian borders were moved away from the river and part of Russian Bessarabia with the mouth of the Danube was annexed to Moldova.
Russia was deprived of the protectorate over Moldavia and Wallachia granted to it by the Kuchuk-Kainardzhi Peace of 1774 and the exclusive protection of Russia over the Christian subjects of the Ottoman Empire.
Russia pledged not to build fortifications on the Åland Islands.

During the war, the participants in the anti-Russian coalition failed to achieve all their goals, but managed to prevent Russia from strengthening in the Balkans and deprive it of the Black Sea Fleet for 15 years.

Consequences of the war

The war led to a breakdown of the financial system of the Russian Empire (Russia spent 800 million rubles on the war, Britain - 76 million pounds): to finance military expenses, the government had to resort to printing unsecured banknotes, which led to a decrease in their silver coverage from 45% in 1853 . to 19% in 1858, that is, in fact, to more than a twofold depreciation of the ruble.
Russia was able to achieve a deficit-free state budget again only in 1870, that is, 14 years after the end of the war. It was possible to establish a stable exchange rate of the ruble to gold and restore its international conversion in 1897, during the Witte monetary reform.
The war became the impetus for economic reforms and, subsequently, for the abolition of serfdom.
The experience of the Crimean War partially formed the basis for the military reforms of the 1860s and 1870s in Russia (replacing the outdated 25-year military service, etc.).

In 1871, Russia achieved the lifting of the ban on keeping the navy in the Black Sea under the London Convention. In 1878, Russia was able to return the lost territories under the Treaty of Berlin, signed within the framework of the Berlin Congress, which took place following the results of the Russian-Turkish War of 1877-1878.

The government of the Russian Empire is beginning to reconsider its policy in the field of railway construction, which previously manifested itself in repeated blocking of private projects for the construction of railways, including to Kremenchug, Kharkov and Odessa, and defending the unprofitability and unnecessaryness of the construction of railways south of Moscow. In September 1854, an order was issued to begin research on the line Moscow - Kharkov - Kremenchug - Elizavetgrad - Olviopol - Odessa. In October 1854, an order was received to begin research on the Kharkov-Feodosia line, in February 1855 - on a branch from the Kharkov-Feodosia line to Donbass, in June 1855 - on the Genichesk-Simferopol-Bakhchisarai-Sevastopol line. On January 26, 1857, the Highest Decree was issued on the creation of the first railway network.

...railroads, the need for which many had doubted even ten years ago, are now recognized by all classes as a necessity for the Empire and have become a popular need, a common, urgent desire. In this deep conviction, we, following the first cessation of hostilities, ordered means to better satisfy this urgent need... turn to private industry, both domestic and foreign... in order to take advantage of the significant experience acquired in the construction of many thousands of miles of railways in Western Europe .

Britannia

Military failures caused the resignation of the British government of Aberdeen, who was replaced in his post by Palmerston. The depravity of the official system of selling officer ranks for money, which has been preserved in the British army since medieval times, was revealed.

Ottoman Empire

During the Eastern Campaign, the Ottoman Empire made 7 million pounds sterling in England. In 1858, the Sultan's treasury was declared bankrupt.

In February 1856, Sultan Abdulmecid I was forced to issue a Khatt-i-Sherif (decree), which proclaimed freedom of religion and equality of subjects of the empire regardless of nationality.

The Crimean War gave impetus to the development of the armed forces, military and naval art of states. In many countries, a transition began from smooth-bore weapons to rifled weapons, from a sailing wooden fleet to a steam-powered armored one, and positional forms of warfare arose.

In the ground forces, the role of small arms and, accordingly, fire preparation for an attack increased, a new battle formation appeared - a rifle chain, which was also the result of a sharply increased capabilities of small arms. Over time, it completely replaced the columns and loose construction.

Sea barrage mines were invented and used for the first time.
The beginning of the use of the telegraph for military purposes was laid.
Florence Nightingale laid the foundations for modern sanitation and care for the wounded in hospitals - in less than six months after her arrival in Turkey, mortality in hospitals decreased from 42 to 2.2%.
For the first time in the history of wars, sisters of mercy were involved in caring for the wounded.
Nikolai Pirogov was the first in Russian field medicine to use a plaster cast, which accelerated the healing process of fractures and saved the wounded from ugly curvature of the limbs.

One of the early manifestations of the information war is documented when, immediately after the Battle of Sinop, English newspapers wrote in reports on the battle that the Russians were finishing off the wounded Turks floating in the sea.
On March 1, 1854, a new asteroid was discovered by the German astronomer Robert Luther at the Dusseldorf Observatory, Germany. This asteroid was named (28) Bellona in honor of Bellona, ​​the ancient Roman goddess of war, part of the retinue of Mars. The name was proposed by the German astronomer Johann Encke and symbolized the beginning of the Crimean War.
On March 31, 1856, the German astronomer Hermann Goldschmidt discovered an asteroid named (40) Harmony. The name was chosen to commemorate the end of the Crimean War.
For the first time, photography was widely used to cover the progress of the war. In particular, a collection of photographs taken by Roger Fenton and numbering 363 images was purchased by the Library of Congress.
The practice of constant weather forecasting emerged, first in Europe and then throughout the world. The storm of November 14, 1854, which caused heavy losses to the Allied fleet, and the fact that these losses could have been prevented, forced the Emperor of France, Napoleon III, to personally instruct his country's leading astronomer, W. Le Verrier, to create an effective weather forecast service. Already on February 19, 1855, just three months after the storm in Balaclava, the first forecast map was created, the prototype of those we see in weather news, and in 1856 there were already 13 weather stations operating in France.
Cigarettes were invented: the habit of wrapping tobacco crumbs in old newspapers was copied by the British and French troops in the Crimea from their Turkish comrades.
The young author Leo Tolstoy gained all-Russian fame with his “Sevastopol Stories” published in the press from the scene of events. Here he created a song criticizing the actions of the command in the battle on the Black River.

According to estimates of military losses, the total number of those killed in battle, as well as those who died from wounds and diseases in the Allied army was 160-170 thousand people, in the Russian army - 100-110 thousand people. According to other estimates, the total number of deaths in the war, including non-combat losses, was approximately 250 thousand on the Russian side and on the Allied side.

In Great Britain, the Crimean Medal was established to reward distinguished soldiers, and the Baltic Medal was established to reward those who distinguished themselves in the Baltic in the Royal Navy and Marine Corps. In 1856, to reward those who distinguished themselves during the Crimean War, the Victoria Cross medal was established, which is still the highest military award in Great Britain.

In the Russian Empire, on November 26, 1856, Emperor Alexander II established the medal “In Memory of the War of 1853-1856,” as well as the medal “For the Defense of Sevastopol,” and ordered the Mint to produce 100,000 copies of the medal.
On August 26, 1856, Alexander II granted the population of Taurida a “Certificate of Gratitude.”

Crimean War (briefly)

Brief description of the Crimean War of 1853-1856.

The main reason for the Crimean War was the clash of interests in the Balkans and the Middle East of such powers as Austria, France, England and Russia. Leading European states sought to open up Turkish possessions to increase the sales market. At the same time, Türkiye wanted in every possible way to take revenge after defeats in the wars with Russia.

The trigger for the war was the problem of revising the legal regime for the Russian fleet's navigation of the Dardanelles and Bosporus straits, which was fixed in 1840 in the London Convention.

And the reason for the outbreak of hostilities was a dispute between the Catholic and Orthodox clergy about the correct ownership of the shrines (the Holy Sepulcher and the Church of Bethlehem), which were at that moment on the territory of the Ottoman Empire. In 1851, Türkiye, incited by France, handed over the keys to the shrines to the Catholics. In 1853, Emperor Nicholas I put forward an ultimatum excluding a peaceful resolution of the issue. At the same time, Russia occupies the Danube principalities, which leads to war. Here are its main points:

· In November 1853, the Black Sea squadron of Admiral Nakhimov defeated the Turkish fleet in the bay of Sinop, and a Russian ground operation was able to push back the enemy troops by crossing the Danube.

· Fearing the defeat of the Ottoman Empire, France and England declared war on Russia in the spring of 1854, attacking the Russian ports of Odessa, the Addan Islands, etc. in August 1854. These blockade attempts were unsuccessful.

· Autumn 1854 - landing of sixty thousand troops in the Crimea to capture Sevastopol. The heroic defense of Sevastopol for 11 months.

· On August twenty-seventh, after a series of unsuccessful battles, they were forced to leave the city.

On March 18, 1856, the Paris Peace Treaty was formalized and signed between Sardinia, Prussia, Austria, England, France, Turkey and Russia. The latter lost part of its fleet and some bases, and the Black Sea was recognized as neutral territory. In addition, Russia lost power in the Balkans, which significantly undermined its military power.

According to historians, the basis for the defeat during the Crimean War was the strategic miscalculation of Nicholas the First, who pushed feudal-serfdom and economically backward Russia into a military conflict with powerful European states.

This defeat prompted Alexander II to carry out radical political reforms.

The Crimean War is one of the most important events in the history of Russia in the 19th century. The largest world powers opposed Russia: Great Britain, France, and the Ottoman Empire. The causes, episodes and results of the Crimean War of 1853-1856 will be briefly discussed in this article.

So, the Crimean War was predetermined some time before its actual start. Thus, in the 40s, the Ottoman Empire deprived the Russian Empire of access to the Black Sea straits. As a result, the Russian fleet was locked in the Black Sea. Nicholas I took this news extremely painfully. It is curious that the significance of this territory has been preserved to this day, already for the Russian Federation. In Europe, meanwhile, they expressed dissatisfaction with Russia's aggressive policies and growing influence in the Balkans.

Causes of the war

The preconditions for such a large-scale conflict took a long time to accumulate. We list the main ones:

1. The Eastern Question is escalating. Russian Emperor Nicholas I sought to finally resolve the “Turkish” issue. Russia wanted to strengthen its influence in the Balkans; it wanted the creation of independent Balkan states: Bulgaria, Serbia, Montenegro, Romania. Nicholas I also planned to capture Constantinople (Istanbul) and establish control over the Black Sea straits (Bosporus and Dardanelles).
2. The Ottoman Empire suffered many defeats in the wars with Russia; it lost the entire Northern Black Sea region, Crimea, and part of Transcaucasia. Greece separated from the Turks shortly before the war. Turkey's influence was falling, it was losing control over its dependent territories. That is, the Turks sought to recoup their previous defeats and regain their lost lands.
3. The French and British were concerned about the steadily growing foreign policy influence of the Russian Empire. Shortly before the Crimean War, Russia defeated the Turks in the war of 1828-1829. and according to the Treaty of Adrianople in 1829, it received new lands from Turkey in the Danube Delta. All this led to the growth and strengthening of anti-Russian sentiments in Europe.

However, it is necessary to distinguish the causes of war from its cause. The immediate cause of the Crimean War was the question of who should own the keys to the Bethlehem Temple. Nicholas I insisted that the Orthodox clergy retain the keys, while the French Emperor Napoleon III (nephew of Napoleon I) demanded that the keys be given to the Catholics. The Turks maneuvered for a long time between the two powers, but in the end they gave the keys to the Vatican. Russia could not ignore such an insult; in response to the actions of the Turks, Nicholas I sent Russian troops into the Danube principalities. Thus began the Crimean War.

It is worth noting that the participants in the war (Sardinia, the Ottoman Empire, Russia, France, Great Britain) each had their own position and interests. So, France wanted revenge for the defeat in 1812. Great Britain is dissatisfied with Russia’s desire to establish its influence in the Balkans. The Ottoman Empire feared something similar, and was not satisfied with the pressure being applied. Austria also had its own point of view, which supposedly was supposed to provide support to Russia. But in the end she took a neutral position.

Main events

Emperor Nikolai Pavlovich I hoped that Austria and Prussia would maintain benevolent neutrality towards Russia, since in 1848-1849 Russia suppressed the Hungarian revolution. There was an expectation that the French would abandon the war due to internal instability, but Napoleon III, on the contrary, decided to strengthen his influence through war.

Nicholas I also did not count on England entering the war, but the British hastened to prevent the strengthening of Russian influence and the final defeat of the Turks. Thus, it was not the decrepit Ottoman Empire that opposed Russia, but a powerful alliance of major powers: Great Britain, France, Turkey. Note: The Sardinian kingdom also participated in the war with Russia.

In 1853, Russian troops occupied the Danube principalities. However, due to the threat of Austria entering the war, already in 1854 our troops had to leave Moldavia and Wallachia; these principalities were occupied by the Austrians.

Throughout the war, operations on the Caucasian front continued with varying success. The main success of the Russian army in this direction was the capture of the large Turkish fortress of Kars in 1855. From Kars the road to Erzurum opened, and from it it was very close to Istanbul. The capture of Kars largely softened the conditions of the Paris Peace of 1856.

But the most important battle of 1853 is the Battle of Sinop. On November 18, 1853, the Russian fleet, commanded by Vice Admiral P.S. Nakhimov, won a phenomenal victory over the Ottoman fleet in the harbor of Sinop. In history, this event is known as the last battle of sailing ships. It was the magnificent success of the Russian fleet at Sinop that served as the reason for England and France entering the war.

In 1854, the French and British landed in Crimea. Russian military leader A.S. Menshikov was defeated at Alma, and then at Inkerman. For his incompetent command, he received the nickname “Treasoners.”

In October 1854, the defense of Sevastopol began. The defense of this main city to Crimea is the key event of the entire Crimean War. The heroic defense was initially led by V.A. Kornilov, who died during the bombing of the city. The engineer Totleben also took part in the battle, strengthening the walls of Sevastopol. The Russian Black Sea Fleet was scuttled to prevent it from being captured by the enemy, and the sailors joined the ranks of the city’s defenders. It is worth noting that Nicholas I equated one month in Sevastopol besieged by enemies to one year of regular service. While defending the city, Vice Admiral Nakhimov, who became famous in the Battle of Sinop, also died.

The defense was long and stubborn, but the forces were unequal. The Anglo-French-Turkish coalition captured the Malakhov Kurgan in 1855. The surviving participants in the defense left the city, and the allies received only its ruins. The defense of Sevastopol has become part of the culture: “Sevastopol Stories” by L.N. is dedicated to it. Tolstoy, participant in the defense of the city.

It must be said that the British and French tried to attack Russia not only from the Crimea. They tried to land in the Baltic, and in the White Sea, where they tried to capture the Solovetsky Monastery, and in Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky, and even on the Kuril Islands. But all these attempts remained unsuccessful: everywhere they met brave and worthy rebuff from Russian soldiers.

By the end of 1855, the situation reached a dead end: the coalition captured Sevastopol, but the Turks lost the most important fortress of Kars in the Caucasus, and the British and French failed to achieve success on other fronts. In Europe itself, there was growing dissatisfaction with the war, which was waged in unclear interests. Peace negotiations began. Moreover, Nicholas I died in February 1855, and his successor Alexander II sought to end the conflict.

Peace of Paris and the results of the war

In 1856, the Treaty of Paris was concluded. According to its provisions:

1. The demilitarization of the Black Sea took place. Perhaps this is the most important and humiliating point of the Paris Peace for Russia. Russia was deprived of the right to have a navy in the Black Sea, for access to which it had fought so long and bloodily.
2. The captured fortresses of Kars and Ardahan were returned to the Turks, and the heroically defending Sevastopol returned to Russia.
3. Russia was deprived of its protectorate over the Danube principalities, as well as its status as the patron of the Orthodox in Turkey.
4. Russia suffered minor territorial losses: the Danube Delta and part of southern Bessarabia.

Considering that Russia fought against the three strongest world powers without allied help and being in diplomatic isolation, we can say that the terms of the Paris Peace were quite lenient on almost all counts. The clause on the demilitarization of the Black Sea was abolished already in 1871, and all other concessions were minimal. Russia was able to defend its territorial integrity. Moreover, Russia did not pay any indemnity to the coalition, and the Turks also lost the right to have a fleet in the Black Sea.

Reasons for Russia's defeat in the Crimean (Eastern) War

To summarize the article, it is necessary to explain why Russia lost.

1. The forces were unequal: a powerful alliance was formed against Russia. One must be glad that in the fight against such enemies the concessions turned out to be so insignificant.
2. Diplomatic isolation. Nicholas I pursued a pronounced imperialist policy, and this aroused the indignation of his neighbors.
3. Military-technical backwardness. Unfortunately, Russian soldiers were armed with inferior guns, and the artillery and navy were also inferior to the coalition in terms of technical equipment. However, all this was compensated by the courage and dedication of the Russian soldiers.
4. Abuses and mistakes of the high command. Despite the heroism of the soldiers, theft flourished among some of the higher ranks. Suffice it to recall the mediocre actions of the same A.S. Menshikov, nicknamed “Izmenshchikov.”
5. Poorly developed means of communication. Railway construction was just beginning to develop in Russia, so it was difficult to quickly transfer fresh forces to the front.

Significance of the Crimean War

The defeat in the Crimean War certainly made us think about reforms. It was this defeat that showed Alexander II that progressive reforms were needed here and now, otherwise the next military clash would be even more painful for Russia. As a result, serfdom was abolished in 1861, and in 1874 a military reform was carried out, introducing universal military service. Already in the Russian-Turkish War of 1877-1878, it confirmed its viability, the authority of Russia, which had weakened after the Crimean War, was restored, and the balance of power in the world changed again in our favor. And according to the London Convention of 1871, it was possible to cancel the clause on the demilitarization of the Black Sea, and the Russian navy reappeared in its waters.

Thus, although the Crimean War ended in defeat, it was a defeat from which the necessary lessons had to be learned, which is what Alexander II managed to do.

Table of main events of the Crimean War

Battle	Participants	Meaning
Battle of Sinop 1853	Vice Admiral P.S. Nakhimov, Osman Pasha.	The defeat of the Turkish fleet was the reason for England and France to enter the war.
Defeat on the river Alma and under Ankerman in 1854	A.S. Menshikov.	Unsuccessful actions in Crimea allowed the coalition to besiege Sevastopol.
Defense of Sevastopol 1854-1855	V.A. Kornilov, P.S. Nakhimov, E.I. Totleben.	At the cost of heavy losses, the coalition took Sevastopol.
Capture of Kars 1855	N.N. Muravyov.	The Turks lost their largest fortress in the Caucasus. This victory softened the blow of the loss of Sevastopol and led to the fact that the terms of the Paris Peace became softer for Russia.

By the middle of the 19th century, the international situation in Europe remained extremely tense: Austria and Prussia continued to concentrate their troops on the border with Russia, England and France asserted their colonial power with blood and sword. In this situation, a war broke out between Russia and Turkey, which went down in history as the Crimean War of 1853-1856.

Causes of military conflict

By the 50s of the 19th century, the Ottoman Empire had finally lost its power. The Russian state, on the contrary, after the suppression of revolutions in European countries, rose in power. Emperor Nicholas I decided to further strengthen the power of Russia. First of all, he wanted the Black Sea straits of the Bosporus and Dardanelles to become free for the Russian fleet. This led to hostilities between the Russian and Turkish empires. Besides, the main reasons were :

• Türkiye had the right to allow the fleet of the allied powers to pass through the Bosporus and Dardanelles in the event of hostilities.
• Russia openly supported the Orthodox peoples under the yoke of the Ottoman Empire. The Turkish government has repeatedly expressed its indignation at Russia’s interference in the internal politics of the Turkish state.
• The Turkish government, led by Abdulmecid, longed for revenge for defeat in two wars with Russia in 1806-1812 and 1828-1829.

Nicholas I, preparing for war with Turkey, counted on the non-interference of the Western powers in the military conflict. However, the Russian emperor was cruelly mistaken - Western countries, incited by Great Britain, openly sided with Turkey. British policy has traditionally been to eradicate by all means the slightest strengthening of any country.

Start of hostilities

The reason for the war was a dispute between the Orthodox and Catholic Churches over the right to own the holy lands in Palestine. In addition, Russia demanded that the Black Sea straits be recognized as free for the Russian navy. The Turkish Sultan Abdulmecid, encouraged by the support of England, declared war on the Russian Empire.

If we talk briefly about the Crimean War, it can be divided into two main stages:

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• First stage lasted from October 16, 1853 to March 27, 1854. For the first six months of military operations on three fronts - the Black Sea, Danube and Caucasus, Russian troops invariably prevailed over the Ottoman Turks.
• Second phase lasted from March 27, 1854 to February 1856. Number of participants in the Crimean War 1853-1856. grew due to the entry into the war of England and France. A radical turning point is coming in the war.

Progress of the military campaign

By the autumn of 1853, events on the Danube front were sluggish and indecisive for both sides.

• The Russian group of forces was commanded only by Gorchakov, who thought only about the defense of the Danube bridgehead. The Turkish troops of Omer Pasha, after futile attempts to go on the offensive on the Wallachian border, also switched to passive defense.
• Events in the Caucasus developed much more rapidly: on October 16, 1854, a detachment consisting of 5 thousand Turks attacked the Russian border outpost between Batum and Poti. The Turkish commander Abdi Pasha hoped to crush Russian troops in Transcaucasia and unite with the Chechen Imam Shamil. But the Russian general Bebutov upset the plans of the Turks, defeating them near the village of Bashkadyklar in November 1853.
• But the loudest victory was achieved at sea by Admiral Nakhimov on November 30, 1853. The Russian squadron completely destroyed the Turkish fleet located in Sinop Bay. The commander of the Turkish fleet, Osman Pasha, was captured by Russian sailors. This was the last battle in the history of the sailing fleet.

• The crushing victories of the Russian army and navy were not to the liking of England and France. The governments of Queen Victoria of England and French Emperor Napoleon III demanded the withdrawal of Russian troops from the mouth of the Danube. Nicholas I refused. In response to this, on March 27, 1854, England declared war on Russia. Due to the concentration of the Austrian armed forces and the ultimatum of the Austrian government, Nicholas I was forced to agree to the withdrawal of Russian troops from the Danube principalities.

The following table summarizes the main events of the second period of the Crimean War, with dates and a summary of each event:

date	Event	Content
March 27, 1854	England declared war on Russia	The declaration of war was a consequence of Russia's disobedience to the demands of Queen Victoria of England
April 22, 1854	An attempt by the Anglo-French fleet to besiege Odessa	The Anglo-French squadron subjected Odessa to a long bombardment of 360 guns. However, all attempts by the British and French to land troops failed.
Spring 1854	Attempts to penetrate the British and French on the coast of the Baltic and White Seas	The Anglo-French landing party captured the Russian fortress of Bomarsund on the Åland Islands. The attacks of the English squadron on the Solovetsky Monastery and on the city of Kala located on the coast of Murmansk were repulsed.
Summer 1854	The Allies are preparing to land troops in Crimea	Commander of Russian troops in Crimea A.S. Menshikov was an extremely incompetent commander-in-chief. He did not in any way prevent the Anglo-French landing in Yevpatoria, although he had about 36 thousand soldiers at hand.
September 20, 1854	Battle on the Alma River	Menshikov tried to stop the troops of the landing allies (66 thousand in total), but in the end he was defeated and retreated to Bakhchisarai, leaving Sevastopol completely defenseless.
October 5, 1854	The Allies began shelling Sevastopol	After the Russian troops retreated to Bakhchisarai, the allies could have taken Sevastopol right away, but decided to storm the city later. Taking advantage of the indecisiveness of the British and French, engineer Totleben began to fortify the city.
October 17, 1854 - September 5, 1855	Defense of Sevastopol	The defense of Sevastopol will forever go down in Russian history as one of its most heroic, symbolic and tragic pages. The remarkable commanders Istomin, Nakhimov and Kornilov fell on the bastions of Sevastopol.
October 25, 1854	Battle of Balaklava	Menshikov tried with all his might to pull the Allied forces away from Sevastopol. Russian troops failed to achieve this goal and defeat the British camp near Balaklava. However, due to heavy losses, the Allies temporarily abandoned the assault on Sevastopol.
November 5, 1854	Battle of Inkerman	Menshikov made another attempt to lift or at least weaken the siege of Sevastopol. However, this attempt also ended in failure. The reason for the next loss of the Russian army was a complete lack of coordination in team actions, as well as the presence of rifled rifles (fittings) among the British and French, which mowed down entire ranks of Russian soldiers on long-distance approaches.
August 16, 1855	Battle of the Black River	The largest battle of the Crimean War. Another attempt by the new commander-in-chief M.D. Gorchakov to lift the siege ended in disaster for the Russian army and the death of thousands of soldiers.
October 2, 1855	Fall of the Turkish fortress of Kars	If in the Crimea the Russian army was plagued by failures, then in the Caucasus parts of the Russian troops successfully pushed back the Turks. The most powerful Turkish fortress of Kars fell on October 2, 1855, but this event could no longer influence the further course of the war.

Many peasants sought to avoid conscription in order not to end up in the army. This did not mean they were cowardly, it was just that many peasants sought to avoid conscription because of their families that needed to be fed. During the Crimean War of 1853-1856, on the contrary, there was a surge of patriotic sentiment among the Russian population. Moreover, people of various classes signed up for the militia.

The end of the war and its consequences

The new Russian sovereign Alexander II, who replaced the suddenly deceased Nicholas I on the throne, directly visited the theater of military operations. After this, he decided to do everything in his power to end the Crimean War. The end of the war occurred at the beginning of 1856.

At the beginning of 1856, a congress of European diplomats was convened in Paris to conclude peace. The most difficult condition put forward by the Western powers of Russia was the ban on maintaining the Russian fleet in the Black Sea.

Basic terms of the Treaty of Paris:

• Russia pledged to return the Kars fortress to Turkey in exchange for Sevastopol;
• Russia was prohibited from having a fleet in the Black Sea;
• Russia was losing part of its territories in the Danube Delta. Navigation on the Danube was declared free;
• Russia was prohibited from having military fortifications on the Åland Islands.

Rice. 3. Paris Congress 1856.

The Russian Empire suffered a serious defeat. A powerful blow was dealt to the country's international prestige. The Crimean War exposed the rottenness of the existing system and the backwardness of industry from the leading world powers. The Russian army's lack of rifled weapons, a modern fleet and the lack of railways could not but affect military operations.

Nevertheless, such key moments of the Crimean War as the Battle of Sinop, the defense of Sevastopol, the capture of Kars or the defense of the Bomarsund fortress remained in history as a sacrificial and majestic feat of Russian soldiers and the Russian people.

The government of Nicholas I introduced severe censorship during the Crimean War. It was forbidden to touch on military topics, both in books and periodicals. Publications that wrote in an enthusiastic manner about the progress of hostilities were also not allowed into print.

What have we learned?

Crimean War 1853-1856 discovered serious shortcomings in the foreign and domestic policies of the Russian Empire. The article “Crimean War” talks about what kind of war it was, why Russia was defeated, as well as the significance of the Crimean War and its consequences.

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The Crimean War, called the Eastern War in the West (1853-1856), was a military clash between Russia and a coalition of European states that came out in defense of Turkey. It had little impact on the external position of the Russian Empire, but significantly on its internal policy. The defeat forced the autocracy to begin reforms of the entire state administration, which ultimately led to the abolition of serfdom and the transformation of Russia into a powerful capitalist power

Causes of the Crimean War

Objective

*** Rivalry between European states and Russia in the matter of control over the numerous possessions of the weak, collapsing Ottoman Empire (Turkey)

On January 9, 14, February 20, 21, 1853, at meetings with the British Ambassador G. Seymour, Emperor Nicholas I proposed that England share the Turkish Empire together with Russia (History of Diplomacy, Volume One pp. 433 - 437. Edited by V. P. Potemkin)

*** Russia's desire for primacy in managing the system of straits (Bosphorus and Dardanelles) from the Black Sea to the Mediterranean

“If England is thinking of settling in Constantinople in the near future, then I will not allow it... For my part, I am equally disposed to accept the obligation not to settle there, of course, as an owner; as a temporary guardian is a different matter" (from the statement of Nicholas the First to the British Ambassador Seymour on January 9, 1853)

*** Russia's desire to include in the sphere of its national interests affairs in the Balkans and among the southern Slavs

“Let Moldova, Wallachia, Serbia, Bulgaria come under Russian protectorate. As for Egypt, I fully understand the importance of this territory for England. Here I can only say that if, during the distribution of the Ottoman inheritance after the fall of the empire, you take possession of Egypt, then I will have no objection to this. I will say the same about Candia (the island of Crete). This island may suit you, and I don’t see why it shouldn’t become an English possession” (conversation between Nicholas I and British Ambassador Seymour on January 9, 1853 at an evening with Grand Duchess Elena Pavlovna)

Subjective

*** Turkey's weakness

“Türkiye is a “sick man”. Nicholas did not change his terminology all his life when he spoke about the Turkish Empire" ((History of Diplomacy, Volume One pp. 433 - 437)

*** Nicholas I's confidence in his impunity

“I want to speak to you as a gentleman, if we manage to come to an agreement - me and England - the rest doesn’t matter to me, I don’t care what others do or will do” (from a conversation between Nicholas the First and British Ambassador Hamilton Seymour on January 9, 1853 at the evening at Grand Duchess Elena Pavlovna)

*** Nicholas's suggestion that Europe is unable to present a united front

“the tsar was confident that Austria and France would not join England (in a possible confrontation with Russia), and England would not dare to fight him without allies” (History of Diplomacy, Volume One pp. 433 - 437. OGIZ, Moscow, 1941)

*** Autocracy, the result of which was the wrong relationship between the emperor and his advisers

“... Russian ambassadors in Paris, London, Vienna, Berlin, ... Chancellor Nesselrode ... in their reports distorted the state of affairs before the Tsar. They almost always wrote not about what they saw, but about what the king would like to know from them. When one day Andrei Rosen convinced Prince Lieven to finally open the Tsar’s eyes, Lieven answered literally: “So that I would say this to the Emperor?!” But I'm not a fool! If I wanted to tell him the truth, he would throw me out the door, and nothing else would come of it" (History of Diplomacy, Volume One)

*** The problem of "Palestinian shrines":

It became apparent back in 1850, continued and intensified in 1851, weakened in the beginning and middle of 1852, and again unusually worsened just at the very end of 1852 - beginning of 1853. Louis Napoleon, while still president, told the Turkish government that he wanted to preserve and restore all the rights and benefits of the Catholic Church confirmed by Turkey back in 1740 in the so-called holy places, that is, in the churches of Jerusalem and Bethlehem. The Sultan agreed; but a sharp protest followed from Russian diplomacy in Constantinople, pointing out the advantages of the Orthodox Church over the Catholic Church based on the conditions of the Kuchuk-Kainardzhi Peace. After all, Nicholas I considered himself the patron saint of the Orthodox

*** France's desire to split the continental union of Austria, England, Prussia and Russia, which arose during the Napoleonic wars n

“Subsequently, the Minister of Foreign Affairs of Napoleon III, Drouey de Luis, very frankly stated: “The question of holy places and everything that relates to it has no real significance for France. This whole eastern question, which is causing so much noise, served the imperial government only as a means of disrupting the continental union, which had paralyzed France for almost half a century. Finally, the opportunity presented itself to sow discord in a powerful coalition, and Emperor Napoleon grabbed it with both hands" (History of Diplomacy)

Events preceding the Crimean War of 1853-1856

1740 - France obtained from the Turkish Sultan priority rights for Catholics in the Holy Places of Jerusalem

1774, July 21 - Kuchuk-Kainardzhi peace treaty between Russia and the Ottoman Empire, in which preferential rights to Holy Places were decided in favor of the Orthodox

1837, June 20 - Queen Victoria took the English throne

1841 - Lord Aberdeen took over as British Foreign Secretary

1844, May - friendly meeting between Queen Victoria, Lord Aberdeen and Nicholas I, who visited England incognito

During his short stay in London, the Emperor charmed everyone with his chivalrous courtesy and royal grandeur, charmed with his cordial courtesy Queen Victoria, her husband and the most prominent statesmen of the then Great Britain, with whom he tried to get closer and enter into an exchange of thoughts.
Nicholas’s aggressive policy in 1853 was due, among other things, to Victoria’s friendly attitude towards him and the fact that the head of the cabinet in England at that moment was the same Lord Aberdeen, who listened to him so kindly at Windsor in 1844

1850 - Patriarch Kirill of Jerusalem asked the Turkish government for permission to repair the dome of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. After much negotiation, a repair plan was drawn up in favor of the Catholics, and the main key to Bethlehem Church was given to the Catholics.

1852, December 29 - Nicholas I ordered to recruit reserves for the 4th and 5th infantry corps, which were driving along the Russian-Turkish border in Europe and to supply these troops with supplies.

1853, January 9 - at an evening with Grand Duchess Elena Pavlovna, at which the diplomatic corps was present, the tsar approached G. Seymour and had a conversation with him: “encourage your government to write again about this subject (the partition of Turkey), to write more fully, and let it do so without hesitation. I trust the English government. I am asking him not for an obligation, not an agreement: this is a free exchange of opinions, and, if necessary, the word of a gentleman. That's enough for us."

1853, January - the Sultan's representative in Jerusalem announced the ownership of the shrines, giving preference to Catholics.

1853, January 14 - second meeting of Nicholas with British Ambassador Seymour

1853, February 9 - an answer came from London, given on behalf of the cabinet by the Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, Lord John Rossel. The answer was sharply negative. Rossel stated that he does not understand why one can think that Turkey is close to the fall, does not find it possible to conclude any agreements regarding Turkey, even the temporary transfer of Constantinople into the hands of the tsar considers unacceptable, finally, Rossel emphasized that both France and Austria will be suspicious of such an Anglo-Russian agreement.

1853, February 20 - third meeting of the Tsar with the British Ambassador on the same issue

1853, February 21 - fourth

1853, March - Russian Ambassador Extraordinary Menshikov arrived in Constantinople

Menshikov was greeted with extraordinary honor. The Turkish police did not even dare to disperse the crowd of Greeks, who gave the prince an enthusiastic meeting. Menshikov behaved with defiant arrogance. In Europe, they paid a lot of attention even to Menshikov’s purely external provocative antics: they wrote about how he paid a visit to the Grand Vizier without taking off his coat, how he spoke sharply to Sultan Abdul-Mecid. From Menshikov’s very first steps, it became clear that he would never give in on two central points: first, he wants to achieve recognition of Russia’s right to patronage not only of the Orthodox Church, but also of the Sultan’s Orthodox subjects; secondly, he demands that Turkey’s consent be approved by the Sultan’s Sened, and not by a firman, i.e., that it be in the nature of a foreign policy agreement with the king, and not be a simple decree

1853, March 22 - Menshikov presented Rifaat Pasha with a note: “The demands of the imperial government are categorical.” And two years later, 1853, on March 24, a new note from Menshikov, which demanded an end to the “systematic and malicious opposition” and contained a draft “convention” that would make Nicholas, as diplomats from other powers immediately declared, “the second Turkish Sultan.”

1853, end of March - Napoleon III ordered his navy stationed in Toulon to immediately sail to the Aegean Sea, to Salamis, and be ready. Napoleon irrevocably decided to fight with Russia.

1853, end of March - a British squadron set off for the Eastern Mediterranean

1853, April 5 - the English ambassador Stratford-Canning arrived in Istanbul, who advised the Sultan to concede on the merits of the demands for holy places, since he understood that Menshikov would not be satisfied with this, because that was not what he came for. Menshikov will begin to insist on demands that will already be clearly aggressive in nature, and then England and France will support Turkey. At the same time, Stratford managed to instill in Prince Menshikov the conviction that England, in the event of war, would never take the side of the Sultan.

1853, May 4 - Türkiye conceded in everything related to the “holy places”; immediately after this, Menshikov, seeing that the desired pretext for occupying the Danube principalities was disappearing, presented his previous demand for an agreement between the Sultan and the Russian emperor.

1853, May 13 - Lord Redcliffe visited the Sultan and informed him that Turkey could be helped by the English squadron located in the Mediterranean Sea, as well as that Turkey must resist Russia. 1853, May 13 - Menshikov was invited to the Sultan. He asked the Sultan to satisfy his demands and mentioned the possibility of reducing Turkey to a secondary state.

1853, May 18 - Menshikov was informed of the decision taken by the Turkish government to promulgate a decree on holy places; issue to the Patriarch of Constantinople a firman protecting Orthodoxy; propose concluding a senedd giving the right to build a Russian church in Jerusalem. Menshikov refused

1853, May 6 - Menshikov presented Turkey with a note of rupture.

1853, May 21 - Menshikov left Constantinople

1853, June 4 - The Sultan issued a decree guaranteeing the rights and privileges of the Christian churches, but especially the rights and privileges of the Orthodox Church.

However, Nicholas issued a manifesto that he, like his ancestors, must defend the Orthodox Church in Turkey, and that in order to ensure that the Turks fulfill previous treaties with Russia, which were violated by the Sultan, the Tsar was forced to occupy the Danube principalities (Moldova and Wallachia)

1853, June 14 - Nicholas I issued a manifesto on the occupation of the Danube principalities

The 4th and 5th infantry corps, numbering 81,541 people, were prepared to occupy Moldova and Wallachia. On May 24, the 4th Corps moved from Podolsk and Volyn provinces to Leovo. The 15th Division of the 5th Infantry Corps arrived there at the beginning of June and merged with the 4th Corps. The command was entrusted to Prince Mikhail Dmitrievich Gorchakov

1853, June 21 - Russian troops crossed the Prut River and invaded Moldova

1853, July 4 - Russian troops occupied Bucharest

1853, July 31 - “Vienna Note”. This note stated that Turkey undertakes to comply with all the terms of the Adrianople and Kuchuk-Kainardzhi peace treaties; The position on the special rights and advantages of the Orthodox Church was again emphasized.

But Stratford-Radcliffe forced Sultan Abdul-Mecid to reject the Vienna Note, and even before that he hastened to draw up, ostensibly on behalf of Turkey, another note, with some reservations against the Vienna Note. The king, in turn, rejected her. At this time, Nicholas received news from the ambassador in France about the impossibility of a joint military action by England and France.

1853, October 16 - Türkiye declared war on Russia

1853, October 20 - Russia declared war on Turkey

The course of the Crimean War of 1853-1856. Briefly

1853, November 30 - Nakhimov defeated the Turkish fleet in Sinop Bay

1853, December 2 - victory of the Russian Caucasian army over the Turkish in the battle of Kars near Bashkadyklyar

1854, January 4 - the combined Anglo-French fleet entered the Black Sea

1854, February 27 - Franco-English ultimatum to Russia demanding the withdrawal of troops from the Danube principalities

1854, March 7 - Union Treaty of Turkey, England and France

1854, March 27 - England declared war on Russia

1854, March 28 - France declared war on Russia

1854, March-July - siege of Silistria, a port city in north-eastern Bulgaria, by the Russian army

1854, April 9 - Prussia and Austria joined diplomatic sanctions against Russia. Russia remained isolated

1854, April - shelling of the Solovetsky Monastery by the English fleet

1854, June - the beginning of the retreat of Russian troops from the Danube principalities

1854, August 10 - conference in Vienna, during which Austria, France and England put forward a number of demands to Russia, which Russia rejected

1854, August 22 - the Turks entered Bucharest

1854, August - the Allies captured the Russian-owned Åland Islands in the Baltic Sea

1854, September 14 - Anglo-French troops landed in the Crimea, near Evpatoria

1854, September 20 - unsuccessful battle of the Russian army with the allies at the Alma River

1854, September 27 - the beginning of the siege of Sevastopol, the heroic 349-day defense of Sevastopol, which
headed by admirals Kornilov, Nakhimov, Istomin, who died during the siege

1854, October 17 - first bombardment of Sevastopol

1854, October - two unsuccessful attempts by the Russian army to break the blockade

1854, October 26 - the battle of Balaklava, unsuccessful for the Russian army

1854, November 5 - unsuccessful battle for the Russian army near Inkerman

1854, November 20 - Austria announced its readiness to enter the war

1855, January 14 - Sardinia declared war on Russia

1855, April 9 - second bombing of Sevastopol

1855, May 24 - the Allies occupied Kerch

1855, June 3 - third bombardment of Sevastopol

1855, August 16 - an unsuccessful attempt by the Russian army to lift the siege of Sevastopol

1855, September 8 - the French captured Malakhov Kurgan - a key position in the defense of Sevastopol

1855, September 11 - the Allies entered the city

1855, November - a series of successful operations of the Russian army against the Turks in the Caucasus

1855, October - December - secret negotiations between France and Austria, concerned about the possible strengthening of England as a result of the defeat of Russia and the Russian Empire about peace

1856, February 25 - the Paris Peace Congress began

1856, March 30 - Peace of Paris

Peace terms

The return of Kars to Turkey in exchange for Sevastopol, the transformation of the Black Sea into neutral: Russia and Turkey are deprived of the opportunity to have a navy and coastal fortifications here, the concession of Bessarabia (the abolition of the exclusive Russian protectorate over Wallachia, Moldova and Serbia)

Reasons for Russia's defeat in the Crimean War

- Russia's military-technical lag behind leading European powers
- Underdevelopment of communications
- Embezzlement, corruption in the rear of the army

“Due to the nature of his activity, Golitsyn had to learn the war as if from scratch. Then he will see heroism, holy self-sacrifice, selfless courage and patience of the defenders of Sevastopol, but, hanging around in the rear on militia affairs, at every step he was faced with God knows what: collapse, indifference, cold-blooded mediocrity and monstrous theft. They stole everything that other - higher - thieves did not have time to steal on the way to Crimea: bread, hay, oats, horses, ammunition. The mechanics of the robbery were simple: suppliers provided rotten goods, which were accepted (as a bribe, of course) by the main commissariat in St. Petersburg. Then - also for a bribe - the army commissariat, then the regimental commissariat, and so on until the last spoke in the chariot. And the soldiers ate rotten stuff, wore rotten stuff, slept on rotten stuff, shot rotten stuff. Military units themselves had to purchase fodder from the local population with money issued by a special financial department. Golitsyn once went there and witnessed such a scene. An officer arrived from the front line in a faded, shabby uniform. The feed has run out, hungry horses are eating sawdust and shavings. An elderly quartermaster with major's shoulder straps adjusted his glasses on his nose and said in a casual voice:
- We'll give you money, eight percent is fine.
- Why on earth? — the officer was indignant. - We are shedding blood!..
“They sent a newbie again,” the quartermaster sighed. - Just small children! I remember that Captain Onishchenko came from your brigade. Why wasn't he sent?
- Onishchenko died...
- May the kingdom of heaven be upon him! - The quartermaster crossed himself. - It's a pity. The man was understanding. We respected him, and he respected us. We won't ask for too much.
The quartermaster was not embarrassed even by the presence of an outsider. Prince Golitsyn approached him, grabbed him by the soul, pulled him out from behind the table and lifted him into the air.
- I’ll kill you, you bastard!..
“Kill,” the quartermaster wheezed, “I still won’t give it without interest.”
“Do you think I’m joking?” The prince squeezed him with his paw.
“I can’t... the chain will break...” the quartermaster croaked with the last of his strength. - Then I won’t live anyway... The Petersburgers will strangle me...
“People are dying there, you son of a bitch!” - the prince cried out in tears and disgustedly threw away the half-strangled military official.
He touched his wrinkled throat, like a condor’s, and croaked with unexpected dignity:
“If we were there... we would have died no worse... And please, please,” he turned to the officer, “comply with the rules: for artillerymen - six percent, for all other branches of the military - eight.”
The officer twitched his cold nose pathetically, as if he was sobbing:
“They’re eating sawdust... shavings... to hell with you!.. I can’t come back without hay.”

- Poor troop control

“Golitsyn was amazed by the commander-in-chief himself, to whom he introduced himself. Gorchakov was not that old, a little over sixty, but he gave the impression of some kind of rottenness, it seemed that if you poked a finger at him, he would crumble like a completely rotten mushroom. The wandering gaze could not concentrate on anything, and when the old man released Golitsyn with a weak wave of his hand, he heard him humming in French:
I'm poor, poor poilu,
And I'm not in a hurry...
- What else is that! - the colonel of the quartermaster service said to Golitsyn when they left the commander-in-chief. “At least he goes to the position, but Prince Menshikov didn’t remember at all that the war was going on.” He just made it all witty, and I must admit, it was caustic. He spoke about the Minister of War as follows: “Prince Dolgorukov has a threefold relationship with gunpowder - he did not invent it, did not smell it and does not send it to Sevastopol.” About commander Dmitry Erofeevich Osten-Sacken: “Erofeich has not become strong. I'm exhausted." Sarcasm at least! - the colonel added thoughtfully. “But he allowed a psalmist to be appointed over the great Nakhimov.” For some reason, Prince Golitsyn did not find it funny. In general, he was unpleasantly surprised by the tone of cynical mockery that reigned at headquarters. It seemed that these people had lost all self-respect, and with it any respect for anything. They didn’t talk about the tragic situation of Sevastopol, but they relished ridiculing the commander of the Sevastopol garrison, Count Osten-Sacken, who only knows what to do with priests, read akathists and argue about divine scripture. “He has one good quality,” the colonel added. “He doesn’t interfere in anything” (Yu. Nagibin “Stronger than all other commands”)

Results of the Crimean War

The Crimean War showed

The greatness and heroism of the Russian people

Defectiveness of the socio-political structure of the Russian Empire

The need for deep reforms of the Russian state