What is the economic structure of the city? Interaction between spheres of society: examples from the media

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The volitional components of economic consciousness and behavior include economic norms, economic interest, economic action, and activity. Economic norms

Until recently, they were not distinguished as an independent type of social norms (standards of behavior regulating people’s relationships, “rules of the game”). However, this became necessary because they can both stimulate and inhibit active economic behavior and entrepreneurship.

One of the features of economic norms is that, as a rule, they are enshrined legally, acquiring the status of legal ones, and are endowed with appropriate means of control (sanctions) over their compliance. Economic interest

develops on the basis of motive, but under the regulatory influence of norms. If we consider property as a certain form of power of economic goods over a person, then economic interest is a form of action of the power of property on the will of a business entity and the source of economic activity. Adam Smith also emphasized the difference in labor activity on one’s own field and on someone else’s field.

Since changes in the economy at the macro level occur through political will, its study represents a major problem at the intersection with political psychology.

Control questions:

1. Define economic behavior.

2. What are the economic and psychological determinants of economic behavior?

3. What is the difference between economic and psychological approaches to the study of economic behavior?

4. What are the components of scientific knowledge about economic behavior?

5. What is the meaning of the axiom of “transitivity”?

6. What is the meaning of the axiom of “substitution”?

7. Illustrate with examples the inconsistency of the axiom of “greed”?

8. List and characterize the main types of systematic errors made when estimating probabilities.

9. Explain with a specific example how the parameters are related: task complexity and level of arousal?

§ 6. How to manage the territorial structure of the city?

In almost all economically developed countries there is government regulation of the location of enterprises and institutions in cities. Its goal is to maintain the high quality of the environment and its attractiveness. In the United States of America at the beginning of the 19th century. For fire safety purposes, in cities it was allowed to build houses only from brick and stone, covered with iron or tiles.

By the beginning of the 20th century. laws were passed regulating the internal territorial structure of cities. The first of them deprived land owners of the rights to the subsoil under the site and to the airspace above it. In 1909, according to the Los Angeles Zoning Law, the city was divided into residential and industrial areas in order to protect private residential areas from the industrial neighborhood that threatened their quality (and, accordingly, value). In 1916, the New York Zoning Law was passed, according to which the city was divided into three zones: residential, commercial, and an unrestricted zone. In addition, areas were identified where the height of buildings and the density of residential development were limited.

Since the 1960s the regulation of urban settlement in the United States is carried out exclusively by economic measures, which are essentially a means of segregating residential areas according to the property and social status of residents.

Is there an optimal territorial structure of a city?

It is obvious that the land use structure of each city should contain not only industrial, commercial and residential zones, but also recreational zones necessary for people’s recreation and maintaining comfortable living. The model of a polarized landscape provides answers to the questions of what relative arrangement of functional zones of the city can be considered optimal, how to protect parks, boulevards, rivers (they do not bring money to the developer) from expanding residential and commercial development?

According to Boris Rodoman's model, the optimal urban structure can be recognized as a location in which aggressive areas (industrial enterprises, shopping centers) are separated from residential areas by so-called “green wedges” - parks, boulevards, recreation areas (Fig. 58). Along the axes of the “green wedges”, starting in city parks, there should be tourist roads equipped in accordance with the requirements of landscape architecture. Only in this way - by optimizing the territorial structure - can nature be preserved in an industrial society.

Rice. 58. Optimal territorial structure of the city. Intertwining networks of a polarized landscape (according to B. Rodoman):
1 - city centers and highways; 2 - residential areas with a permanent population and environmentally friendly manufacturing industry; 3 - high and medium intensity agriculture, marine plantations and fisheries; 4 - country natural parks for recreation and tourism, extensive agriculture (natural hayfields, pastures); 5 - natural reserves; 6 - recreational settlements and dwellings (dachas, holiday homes, camp sites, floating hotels) and connecting tourist routes, trails, roads, flights

Permission to develop the purchased plot is given by the city authorities only if the requirements for its area, the architectural style of the building, and the size of the living space are met (at the end of the 20th century, for houses on the outskirts of the city it should be at least 140 m2, and in some of the most prestigious areas - about 200 m2, with a mandatory swimming pool, an expensive closed life support system, etc.). These requirements automatically make housing expensive, thereby limiting the ability of less affluent people to settle in these areas.

A system of monetary compensation to residents for “losses in quality of life” has become widespread. It is believed that the proximity of such objects as a prison, a psychiatric hospital, a power plant, or an industrial enterprise sharply reduces the quality and, accordingly, the cost of nearby housing.

Regulating urban settlement in South Africa. Existed in South Africa until the 1990s. XX century the system of apartheid - the separate residence of people with different skin colors - was also reflected in the territorial structure of cities: in large cities, areas were allocated in which only white or only black citizens were allowed to live (Fig. 59). At the present time, when apartheid has been condemned and abolished by law, the previously existing settlement system continues to exist and is unlikely to be transformed soon, given the high cost of land and housing in large cities. Low-income black residents simply cannot afford to relocate.

Rice. 59. Racial zoning in Port Elizabeth, South Africa, 1950s. Areas legally designated for residence:

1. - white population;
2. - people of color;
3. - Indians;
4. - Chinese;
5. - black population;
6. - central business district.

The forced relocation of indigenous residents to “townships” - “black” suburbs - dates back to the beginning of the 20th century. The bulk of black South Africans lived in large cities and worked in mines and enterprises located in close proximity to the cities, commuting daily. The sharp increase in fares has made daily travel unprofitable from an economic point of view. Black Africans were forced to sell their housing in the city and settle near the mines and factories. Such settlements are located around almost all of the largest cities in South Africa, for example Durban and Johannesburg (Fig. 60).

Rice. 60. Suburb of Johannesburg (South Africa)

Regulation of urban settlement in the USSR. Existed in the USSR in the middle of the 20th century. the institution of registration and the policy of limiting the growth of large cities actually assigned citizens to certain settlements. Only in the early 1990s. the institution of registration was abolished and declared contrary to the Constitution.

Regulation of urban settlement in China. The “huko” system existing in the country, which assigns the rural population to a specific place of residence (analogous to the Soviet registration), is today the main obstacle to the industrial development of China, since it prevents the migration of the predominant rural population to the rapidly developing industrial enterprises of the cities.

Main ideas of the topic

• The economic structure of a city depends on the functioning of the basic sector of the city economy.
• The nature of land use in cities depends on their transport accessibility.
• Land prices are highest in the central business district and decrease as you move away from the center.
• The territorial structure of each city contains elements of three basic models - concentric, multi-core, sectoral.
• Regulation of the territorial structure of cities is necessary to ensure optimal use of urban space.

Repetition and generalization of knowledge on the topic

1. Explain with a specific example the relationship between the basic, service and household sectors. Formulate the Lowry model.
2. What are the patterns of location of plots with different land prices in a large city?
3. What patterns of land use in cities do you know? What is the peculiarity of each of them?
4. What model of urban land use does your city belong to? Why?
5. What are the patterns of setting housing prices in the city?
6. Why do poor people sometimes live in the city center, on expensive land, in poor housing, while wealthier people live on the outskirts, where land is cheaper?
7. What methods of regulating the territorial structure of a city exist?

Society is a dynamic system of human interaction. This is one of the definitions. The key word in it is system, that is, a complex mechanism that consists of spheres of social life. There are four such areas in science:

• Political.
• Economic.
• Social.
• Spiritual.

All of them are not isolated from each other, but, on the contrary, are interconnected. We will look at examples of interaction in more detail in this article.

Political sphere

Spheres are areas in which the basic needs of society are satisfied.

Political includes bodies of state power and administration, as well as various political institutions. It is directly related to the apparatuses of coercion and suppression, which legitimately use force with the approval of the entire society. satisfies the needs for safety, security, and maintaining law and order.

These include:

• The president.
• Government.
• Local government authorities.
• Strong structure.
• Political parties and associations.
• Local government bodies.

Economic sphere

The economic sphere is designed to satisfy the material needs of society. If only adult citizens take part in political life, then absolutely everyone, including the elderly and children, takes part in political life. All people are consumers from an economic point of view, which means they are direct participants in market relations.

Key concepts in the economic sphere:

• Production.
• Exchange.
• Consumption.

Firms, plants, factories, mines, banks, etc. participate in production.

Interaction between the political and economic spheres

Let us give examples of interaction between spheres of society. The State Duma of the Russian Federation adopts laws that all citizens are required to comply with. Some adopted regulations may affect changes in economic sectors. For example, licensing of certain types of activities leads to an increase in the price of certain products due to additional costs associated with innovation.

Specific examples of interaction between spheres of society can be illustrated in the light of recent events. International economic sanctions were introduced against the Russian Federation. In response, the authorities of our country introduced counter-sanctions. As a result, some European food products and medicines do not reach the Russian market. This led to the following consequences:

• Rising prices of products.
• The absence on the shelves of many products, analogues of which are not produced in Russia.
• Development of some sectors of the economy: livestock farming, horticulture, etc.

But it is a mistake to believe that only power influences business; sometimes the opposite happens. Opposite examples of interaction between spheres of society, when economists dictate conditions to politicians, can be cited in the practice of lobbying for laws. A recent example is the so-called Rotenberg law in Russia, according to which millionaires subject to Western sanctions will be paid compensation from the state budget.

Social sphere

The social sphere satisfies the needs of society in education, medicine, services, leisure and entertainment. It includes everyday communication between citizens and large groups of people.

Political and social spheres

Politics can affect the social life of a country. The following examples of interaction between spheres of society can be given. Local city authorities have banned the opening of any entertainment establishments: clubs, night bars and cafes in one of the criminal areas on the outskirts of the city. As a result, the crime rate has fallen, but residents have to travel longer to get to places of recreation and entertainment.

The following example: in a crisis, a district municipality is experiencing a crisis. In order to reduce costs, it decides to close one of the schools. As a result, there is a reduction in teaching staff, children are transported to another locality every day, and money is saved on the maintenance of facilities, since by law all costs for their maintenance fall on local authorities.

Social and economic spheres

The economic development of a country greatly influences social life. Here are just some examples of interaction between spheres of society. The financial crisis reduced real incomes of the population. Citizens began to spend less on entertainment and leisure, limiting trips to paid parks, sports clubs, stadiums, and cafes. The loss of customers led to the ruin of many companies.

There is also a relationship between politics, economics and social development of a country. Let us give examples of interaction between spheres of society. Instability in the Middle East and the weakening of the ruble exchange rate by half, coupled with active development, led to many canceling traditional trips to Egypt and Turkey and began to vacation in Russia.

This example can be broken down into its components:

• Political - instability in the Middle East, government measures to increase domestic tourism.
• Economic - the devaluation of the ruble led to a significant increase in prices for trips to Turkey and Egypt while maintaining domestic prices.
• Social - tourism refers specifically to this area.

Spiritual realm

Many people mistakenly assume that the spiritual realm refers to religion. This misconception comes from a history course, where church reforms of certain periods are discussed under the relevant topics. In fact, although religion belongs to the spiritual sphere, it is not its only component.

In addition to this, this includes:

• The science.
• Education.
• Culture.

As for education, the most attentive readers will ask a fair question that we previously classified it as a social area when we examined examples of interaction between spheres of society. But spiritual education refers to education as a process, and not as an interaction between people. For example, going to school, communicating with peers, teachers - all this relates to the social area. Gaining knowledge, socialization (education), self-realization and self-improvement is a process of spiritual life that is designed to satisfy the needs for knowledge and improvement.

Spiritual and political spheres

Sometimes politics is influenced by religion. Let us give examples of interaction between the spheres. Today Iran is a religious state: all internal policies and laws are adopted exclusively in the interests of Shiite Muslims.

Let us give a historical example of interaction between spheres of society. After the October Revolution of 1917, many churches were blown up, and religion was recognized as “the opium of the people,” that is, a harmful drug that must be gotten rid of. Many priests were killed, churches were destroyed, and in their place warehouses, shops, mills, etc. were formed. This also affected social life: there was a spiritual decline in the population, people stopped honoring traditions, did not register marriages in churches, as a result of which unions began to disintegrate . In fact, this led to the destruction of the institution of family and marriage. The wedding witness was not God, but man, which, we agree, is a huge difference for a believer. This continued until the Great Patriotic War, until Stalin officially restored the activities of the Russian Orthodox Church on legal grounds.

Spiritual and economic spheres

Economic development also affects the spiritual life of the country. What examples of interaction between spheres of society prove this? Psychologists note that during periods of economic crises, a depressed state of the population is observed. Many people lose their jobs, their savings, their companies go bankrupt - all this leads to psychological problems. But in Russia the practice of private psychologists is not developed, as, for example, in the USA. Therefore, religious sects arise that draw “lost souls” into their networks, from which it is sometimes very difficult to escape.

Another example is South Korea. The lack of minerals and other resources influenced the fact that this country began to develop science and tourism. This has yielded results - today this country is a leader in the field of electronics and is one of the ten most developed countries in the world. Politics, economics and social development collided here at once.

Spiritual and social spheres

The line between spiritual and social life is very thin, but we will try to clarify it through examples of interaction between spheres of social life. Students attending school and entering college are all two spheres, as people communicate (social) and perform various rituals (spiritual).

Examples of interaction between spheres of society from history

Let's remember a little history. It also contains examples of interaction between different spheres of society. Take Stolypin's reforms at the beginning of the 20th century. In Russia, the community was abolished, Peasant Banks were created, which issued loans to settlers, they provided preferential travel at the expense of the state, and created a small infrastructure in Siberia. As a result, thousands of peasants from the land-poor South and the Volga region flocked to the East, where the treasured hectares of free land awaited them. All these measures allowed:

• to alleviate peasant landlessness in the central provinces;
• to develop the empty lands of Siberia;
• feed people with bread and replenish the state budget with taxes in the future.

This serves as a striking example of the interaction between politics, economics and social life of the country.

Another situation is the dispossession of peasants, as a result of which many hardworking rational owners were left without a livelihood, and their place was taken by parasites from the poor committees. As a result, many died of starvation and rural farming was destroyed. This example shows the impact of ill-considered political decisions on the economy and social life.

Interaction between spheres of society: examples from the media

“Channel One” announced that the Russian authorities had made a decision to bomb terrorists, which is prohibited in Russia. Islamic State". Federal Channel also reported that the authorities intend to resume negotiations on the Turkish gas pipeline to Europe.

All information is from a source that relates to It illustrates examples of interaction between different spheres of society. In the first case, political and social, since the decision of the leadership of our country will lead to consequences in the Middle East. History c shows the relationship between politics and economics. The agreement between the countries will develop the gas industry and replenish the budgets of both countries.

Conclusion

Examples of interaction between spheres of society prove that we live in a complex system. A change in one subsystem necessarily affects others. All spheres are interconnected, but none of the four is the main, dominant one on which all the others depend.

Law acts as a superstructure. It is not included in any of the four, but it does not stand out in the fifth. The right is the fastening instrument above them.

In almost all economically developed countries, there is government regulation of the location of enterprises and institutions in cities. Its goal is to maintain the high quality of the environment and its attractiveness.

In almost all economically developed countries there is government regulation of the location of enterprises and institutions in cities. Its goal is to maintain the high quality of the environment and its attractiveness. In the United States of America at the beginning of the 19th century. For fire safety purposes, in cities it was allowed to build houses only from brick and stone, covered with iron or tiles.

By the beginning of the 20th century. laws were passed regulating the internal territorial structure of cities. The first of them deprived land owners of the rights to the subsoil under the site and to the airspace above it. In 1909, according to the Los Angeles Zoning Law, the city was divided into residential and industrial areas in order to protect private residential areas from the industrial neighborhood that threatened their quality (and, accordingly, value). In 1916, the New York Zoning Law was passed, according to which the city was divided into three zones: residential, commercial, and an unrestricted zone. In addition, areas were identified where the height of buildings and the density of residential development were limited.

Since the 1960s the regulation of urban settlement in the United States is carried out exclusively by economic measures, which are essentially a means of segregating residential areas according to the property and social status of residents.

Is there an optimal territorial structure of a city?

It is obvious that the land use structure of each city should contain not only industrial, commercial and residential zones, but also recreational zones necessary for people’s recreation and maintaining comfortable living. The model of a polarized landscape provides answers to the questions of what relative arrangement of functional zones of the city can be considered optimal, how to protect parks, boulevards, rivers (they do not bring money to the developer) from expanding residential and commercial development?

According to Boris Rodoman's model, the optimal urban structure can be recognized as a location in which aggressive areas (industrial enterprises, shopping centers) are separated from residential areas by so-called “green wedges” - parks, boulevards, recreation areas (Fig. 58). Along the axes of the “green wedges”, starting in city parks, there should be tourist roads equipped in accordance with the requirements of landscape architecture. Only in this way - by optimizing the territorial structure - can nature be preserved in an industrial society.

Rice. 58. Optimal territorial structure of the city. Intertwining networks of a polarized landscape (according to B. Rodoman):
1 - city centers and highways; 2 - residential areas with a permanent population and environmentally friendly manufacturing industry; 3 - high and medium intensity agriculture, marine plantations and fisheries; 4 - country natural parks for recreation and tourism, extensive agriculture (natural hayfields, pastures); 5 - nature reserves; 6 - recreational settlements and dwellings (dachas, holiday homes, camp sites, floating hotels) and connecting tourist routes, trails, roads, flights

Permission to develop the purchased plot is given by the city authorities only if the requirements for its area, the architectural style of the building, and the size of the living space are met (at the end of the 20th century, for houses on the outskirts of the city it should be at least 140 m2, and in some of the most prestigious areas - about 200 m2, with a mandatory swimming pool, an expensive closed life support system, etc.). These requirements automatically make housing expensive, thereby limiting the ability of less affluent people to settle in these areas.

A system of monetary compensation to residents for “losses in quality of life” has become widespread. It is believed that the proximity of such objects as a prison, a psychiatric hospital, a power plant, or an industrial enterprise sharply reduces the quality and, accordingly, the cost of nearby housing.

Regulating urban settlement in South Africa. Existed in South Africa until the 1990s. XX century the system of apartheid - the separate residence of people with different skin colors - was also reflected in the territorial structure of cities: in large cities, areas were allocated in which only white or only black citizens were allowed to live (Fig. 59).

Rice. 59. At present, when apartheid has been condemned and abolished by law, the previously existing settlement system continues to exist and is unlikely to be transformed soon, given the high cost of land and housing in large cities. Low-income black residents simply cannot afford to relocate.

1. Racial zoning in Port Elizabeth, South Africa, 1950s. Areas legally designated for residence:
2. - white population;
3. - people of color;
4. - Indians;
5. - Chinese;
6. - black population;

- central business district.

Rice. 60. The forced relocation of indigenous residents to “townships” - “black” suburbs - dates back to the beginning of the 20th century. The bulk of black South Africans lived in large cities and worked in mines and enterprises located in close proximity to the cities, commuting daily. The sharp increase in fares has made daily travel unprofitable from an economic point of view.

Regulation of urban settlement in the USSR. Black Africans were forced to sell their housing in the city and settle near the mines and factories. Such settlements are located around almost all of the largest cities in South Africa, for example Durban and Johannesburg (Fig. 60).

Regulation of urban settlement in China. Suburb of Johannesburg (South Africa)

Existed in the USSR in the middle of the 20th century. the institution of registration and the policy of limiting the growth of large cities actually assigned citizens to certain settlements. Only in the early 1990s. the institution of registration was abolished and declared contrary to the Constitution.

• The “huko” system existing in the country, which assigns the rural population to a specific place of residence (analogous to the Soviet registration), is today the main obstacle to the industrial development of China, since it prevents the migration of the predominant rural population to the rapidly developing industrial enterprises of the cities.
• Main ideas of the topic
• The economic structure of a city depends on the functioning of the basic sector of the city economy.
• The nature of land use in cities depends on their transport accessibility.
• Regulation of the territorial structure of cities is necessary to ensure optimal use of urban space.

Repetition and generalization of knowledge on the topic

1. Explain with a specific example the relationship between the basic, service and household sectors. Formulate the Lowry model.
2. What are the patterns of location of plots with different land prices in a large city?
3. What patterns of land use in cities do you know? What is the peculiarity of each of them?
4. What model of urban land use does your city belong to? Why?
5. What are the patterns of setting housing prices in the city?
6. Why do poor people sometimes live in the city center, on expensive land, in poor housing, while wealthier people live on the outskirts, where land is cheaper?
7. What methods of regulating the territorial structure of a city exist?

1) Why is intraspecific competition more fierce?

2) What do partners extract (receive) from mutually beneficial relationships? Explain with a specific example.

3) What does the displacement of some individuals by others as a result of competition lead to?

COMPETITION, COOPERATION AND SYMBIOSIS

Between organisms of different species that make up one or another biocenosis, mutually harmful, mutually beneficial, beneficial for one side and unprofitable or indifferent for the other side, and other, more subtle relationships develop.

One of the forms of mutually harmful biotic relationships between organisms is competition. It occurs between individuals of the same or different species due to limited environmental resources. Scientists distinguish between interspecific and intraspecific competition.

Interspecific competition occurs when different species of organisms live in the same territory and have similar needs for environmental resources. This leads to the gradual displacement of one type of organism by another that has advantages in the use of resources. For example, two species of cockroaches - red and black - compete with each other for habitat - human habitation. This leads to the gradual displacement of the black cockroach by the red one, since the latter has a shorter life cycle, reproduces faster and uses resources better.

Intraspecific competition is more acute than interspecific competition, since individuals of the same species always have the same resource needs. As a result of such competition, individuals weaken each other, which leads to the death of the less adapted, that is, to natural selection. Intraspecific competition that arises between individuals of the same species for the same environmental resources negatively affects them. For example, birch trees in the same forest compete with each other for light, moisture and soil minerals, which leads to their mutual oppression and self-thinning.

Among the biotic relationships between organisms in natural communities, mutually beneficial cohabitation occurs. It is built, as a rule, on food and spatial connections, when two or more species of organisms jointly use various environmental resources for their livelihoods. The degree of mutually beneficial cohabitation between organisms varies - from temporary contacts (cooperation) to a state where the presence of a partner becomes a prerequisite for the life of each of them (symbiosis).

Cooperation is observed between a hermit crab and an anemone attached to its shelter - a shell left over from a mollusk. The cancer carries the sea anemone and feeds it with leftover food, and it protects it with the stinging cells with which its tentacles are armed.

An example of symbiosis is the relationship between forest trees and cap mushrooms: boletus, boletus, etc. Cap mushrooms entwine the roots of trees with mycelium threads and, thanks to the mycorrhiza formed in this process, obtain organic substances from plants. Mycorrhiza enhances the ability of tree root systems to absorb water from the soil. In addition, trees receive the necessary minerals from cap mushrooms using mycorrhiza.

Explanation.

The correct answer must contain the following elements:

1) Competing organisms have the same needs.

2) Benefit in the form of additional food and resources from their environment. Example: hermit crab and sea anemone. The crayfish carries the sea anemone and feeds it, the sea anemone protects the crayfish.

3) Death of less adapted individuals.

The need for the population to develop other (new) habitats.